Populism: Origins, Evolution, Features

Introduction

Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests and voice of the “common people” against the elite or establishment. This ideology, characterized by its anti-elitist sentiments and opposition to the perceived control of liberal democracies by elites, can manifest in various forms.

While the term can denote positive democratic engagement, it is frequently used pejoratively to describe political strategies that offer overly simplistic solutions to complex problems in an emotionally charged manner. Additionally, it can denote opportunistic behaviours of politicians aiming to please voters without regard for rational policy considerations. Economists sometimes use the term to describe governments that engage in significant public spending financed by foreign loans, leading to hyperinflation and emergency economic measures.

Core Concepts of Populism

According to Ben Stanley, populism comprises four distinct but interrelated concepts:

1. Homogeneous Units: The division of society into ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’.
2. Antagonism: An antagonistic relationship between these two groups.
3. Popular Sovereignty: The belief in the absolute sovereignty of the people.
4. Valorization: The positive valorization of ‘the people’ and denigration of ‘the elite’.

Forms of Populism

Populist movements can emerge across the political spectrum, advocating for various policies and ideologies based on the specific socio-economic and cultural context. However, its two extremes are Right-wing Populism or National Populism and Left-Wing Populism or Social Populism. Although both share a common anti-elitist rhetoric, they diverge significantly in their core themes and policy focuses.

Right-Wing Populism (National Populism):

Right-wing populism often emphasizes nationalism, strong immigration controls, and opposition to multiculturalism. It is typically characterized by nativism, protectionism, and Euroscepticism, especially in the European context.

Right-wing populists support strong immigration restrictions, particularly from Islamic countries, and often advocate for welfare chauvinism — expanding welfare benefits while excluding undocumented immigrants. They also exhibit anti-environmentalism and seek to preserve traditional cultural or ethnic particularism.

Prominent right-wing populist figures and parties include Donald Trump in the United States, Marine Le Pen in France (National Rally), and the Alternative for Germany (AfD).

Left-Wing Populism (Social Populism):

Left-wing populism focuses on social justice, anti-capitalism, and opposition to the power of large corporations. It advocates for pacifism, anti-globalization, and increasingly, anti-militarism, particularly in reaction to unpopular military interventions.

Left-wing populists support minority rights, seek to address social inequalities, and promote policies that benefit the working class. They often reject traditional socialist theory in favour of more pragmatic approaches to achieving economic and social reforms.

Notable left-wing populists include Bernie Sanders in the United States, Podemos in Spain, and Syriza in Greece.

Origins and Evolution

The term “populism” emerged in the late 19th century during a time of democratic promotion. In the United States, it was associated with the People’s Party, while in the Russian Empire, it was linked to the agrarian socialist Narodnik movement. By the 1960s, the term gained popularity among social scientists in Western countries, and in the 21st century, it became common in political discourse to describe a variety of political groups — left-wing, right-wing, and centrist — that challenged established parties. When in office, populists have often been associated with democratic backsliding or “democratic erosion,” as they tend to undermine independent institutions like the media and judiciary, which they view as hostile to the “will of the people.”

Features of Populism

Populist movements share several common features, despite their ideological differences:

1. Anti-Elitism: Populists position themselves against the elite, whom they accuse of betraying the interests of the common people.
2. Rhetoric Over Ideology: Populism is often seen more as a rhetorical stance than a coherent ideology. It frames society as divided into “the pure people” and “the corrupt elite,” advocating for politics to express the general will of the people. Populists often combine this rhetoric with other ideologies, such as nativism on the right and socialism on the left.
3. Anti-Politics: Populists are typically suspicious of the bargaining and compromise inherent in democratic governance. They tend to reject conventional political processes, inciting contempt for solving problems through political means.
4. Conspiracy Bent: Populism often harbours a conspiratorial mindset, believing that the country faces imminent ruin at the hands of specific groups, such as immigrants, billionaires, or politicians.
5. Authenticity: Populists are valued for their crude and direct rhetoric, which reassures followers of their authenticity and commitment to articulating the concerns of ordinary people.
6. Direct Rapport: Populists often lack party loyalty, which enhances their credibility. Their authority comes from a direct bond with their supporters, free from institutional interference. They frequently rail against foreign trade deals, the political class, and corruption.
7. Charismatic Leadership: Populist movements are frequently led by charismatic leaders who claim to embody the will of the people.

Conditions Conducive to the Emergence of Populism

Populism thrives during times when large numbers of citizens feel that the system is rigged against them. These individuals often hold a vision of a better, earlier time that has come under threat. This sentiment is often driven by a desire to assert domestic sovereignty and a rejection of the “cult of the expert,” which is seen as favoring elites over the common people.

Benefits and Demerits

Populism can have both positive and negative impacts on society and politics.

Benefits:

1. Highlighting Key Issues: Even when populists do not win national elections, they can expand the parameters of political discourse and bring about significant reforms. Populism brings attention to issues that resonate with large segments of the population but are often avoided by political elites, such as immigration and economic inequality.
2. Emancipatory Force: Political scientist Ernesto Laclau views populism as an emancipatory force through which marginalized groups challenge dominant power structures.
3. Political Engagement: It can increase political engagement and participation among citizens who feel alienated from traditional political processes.
4. Policy Innovation: Populist movements can introduce new ideas and policies that challenge the status quo and address pressing social issues.

Demerits:

1. Delegitimizing Opponents: Populism often denies the legitimacy of political opponents, leading to a polarized political culture where compromise is seen as corruption.
2. Ineffective Governance: Populist governance tends to be ineffective due to its uncompromising nature and rejection of shared power.
3. Faulty Policies: Populist leaders often base policies on conviction rather than empirical evidence, resulting in suboptimal outcomes.
4. Institutional Decay: Populism undermines the independence of institutions that safeguard democracy, promoting instability and weakening the checks and balances of liberal democracy.
5. Polarization: Populism often leads to increased political polarization, dividing societies along ideological lines.
6. Authoritarianism: Populist leaders may undermine democratic institutions and checks and balances, leading to authoritarian governance.
7. Simplistic Solutions: Populist policies can be overly simplistic and fail to address complex socio-economic problems effectively.

Conclusion

Populism is a multifaceted and dynamic political phenomenon that can take various forms depending on the socio-political context. While it can empower the common people and bring attention to important issues, it also carries risks of polarization and authoritarianism. Understanding the nuances between right-wing and left-wing populism is crucial for analyzing their impacts on contemporary politics.

Populism represents an illiberal democratic response to undemocratic liberalism. It criticizes the exclusion of important issues from the political agenda by elites and calls for their re-politicization. However, this comes at a cost: populism’s black-and-white views and uncompromising stance lead to a polarized society and undermine the rights of minorities.

While left-wing populism is generally less exclusionary than right-wing populism, both forms exclude different groups based on their underlying ideologies. For developing nations, the rise of populism in the West may ultimately be beneficial, despite its short-term negative impacts, as it forces these countries to rethink their dependence on foreign aid and the inevitability of globalization.

From the book “International Relations: Basic Concepts & Global Issues: 2nd Edition”, published by Amazon and available at

International Relations: Basic Concepts & Global Issues: 2nd Edition