Muslim Political Philosophy: Main Strands

Introduction

The political philosophy of Muslim philosophers is a rich and diverse field that has evolved over centuries and includes a wide range of perspectives. While there isn’t a single set of core ideas that all Muslim philosophers universally agree upon, there are some recurring themes and concepts that have been explored by various Islamic political thinkers. Here are the core ideas often discussed in Islamic political philosophy:

1. Divine Sovereignty

The concept of Divine Sovereignty, also known as “Hakimiyyah” or “Sovereignty of God,” is a fundamental idea in Muslim political philosophy that asserts the ultimate authority and control of God over all aspects of human life, including political governance. This concept highlights the following main points:

1. Supremacy of God’s Law: Divine Sovereignty posits that Islamic law, known as Sharia, is the ultimate and unchallengeable source of authority in the lives of Muslims and the governance of an Islamic state. God’s laws, as revealed in the Quran and the Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad), are considered superior to any human-made laws or systems.
2. Human Obedience to God: This concept emphasizes that human beings, including rulers and governments, are accountable to God for their actions and decisions. Political authority is seen as a trust (amanah) from God, and those in power must rule in accordance with Islamic principles and ethical values.
3. Rejection of Secularism: Divine Sovereignty often stands in contrast to secularism, which separates religion from politics and governance. In Muslim political philosophy, the idea is that political authority and law cannot be divorced from religious guidance, as God’s sovereignty extends over all aspects of life.

Different Muslim political philosophers and scholars have discussed the concept of Divine Sovereignty in various ways. Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE) emphasized the concept of Divine Sovereignty in his works and argued that the sovereignty of God should take precedence over any human-made laws or systems. He opposed any form of rule that contradicted Islamic principles and considered it a violation of Divine Sovereignty. His views influenced later Islamic political thought.

Similarly, Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE) a philosopher and political thinker, integrated the concept of Divine Sovereignty into his political philosophy. He argued that the ideal ruler should govern in accordance with divine guidance, ensuring justice and moral principles in the state. His works reflected the idea that political authority must be aligned with the will of God.

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE), a renowned historian and philosopher, also discussed the concept of Divine Sovereignty in his influential work, “The Muqaddimah.” He emphasized the importance of the rule of law and the need for rulers to adhere to Islamic principles. His ideas contributed to the development of political thought in the Muslim world. Likewise, Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966 CE), an Egyptian Islamist thinker, emphasized the concept of Divine Sovereignty in his writings. He argued that Islamic governance should be based on God’s law alone, rejecting any secular or man-made legal systems. His ideas influenced the modern Islamist movement.

Thus, every Muslim political scholar has emphasised the concept of divine sovereignty, where ultimate authority and sovereignty rest with God alone. This principle is significant in discussions about the limitations of human rulers and the need for rulers to act in accordance with Islamic ethics and law. Muslim philosophers explored the idea of divine sovereignty and its implications for governance and argued that human rulers should govern in line with divine guidance and seek to establish justice on earth.

2. Primacy of Sharia in an Islamic State

The concept of the “Primacy of Sharia” refers to the idea that Islamic law (Sharia) holds the highest authority and serves as the main source of legislation and governance in an Islamic state. All other laws, regulations, and government actions must align with the principles and values of Sharia. This principle is central to Muslim political philosophy and emphasizes the following key points:

1. Divine Source: Sharia is considered to be of divine origin, derived from the Quran (the holy book of Islam) and the Hadith (the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad). As such, it is believed to embody God’s guidance for all aspects of life, including governance and morality.
2. Islamic Ethical Framework: Sharia encompasses a wide range of ethical values, including justice, compassion, equality, and the protection of human rights. These principles guide both legislation and the application of laws within an Islamic state.
3. Guidance for Public and Private Life: Sharia is not limited to matters of personal piety but extends to the regulation of public life, including economics, politics, justice, and social welfare. It provides a comprehensive framework for both individual conduct and state affairs.
4. Ruler’s Accountability: The ruler or government in an Islamic state is accountable to Sharia and must govern in accordance with its principles. This accountability is considered a trust (amanah) from God, and rulers are expected to uphold justice, protect the rights of citizens, and promote the common good as defined by Sharia.

Different Muslim political philosophers and scholars have discussed the concept of the Primacy of Sharia in various ways, often reflecting their own interpretations and perspectives. Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE) integrated the concept of the Primacy of Sharia into his political philosophy. He argued that the ideal ruler should govern in accordance with divine guidance as expressed in Sharia. His vision of an Islamic state emphasized the role of Sharia in creating a just and virtuous society.

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE) argued that Islamic law should take precedence over all other legal systems and that rulers must govern in accordance with the principles of Sharia. His writings emphasized the necessity of upholding Sharia to ensure the moral and ethical foundation of society. Al Mawardi (972–1058 CE) wrote extensively on the governance of Islamic states. In his work “The Ordinances of Government” (al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya), he emphasized the supremacy of Sharia as the foundational source of law and governance in an Islamic state. He outlined the responsibilities and limitations of rulers under Sharia and advocated for the rule of law.

Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im (Born 1946), a contemporary Islamic legal scholar, explores the concept of the Primacy of Sharia in the context of human rights and secularism. He argues for a form of secularism that respects religious diversity while emphasizing individual freedom. He believes that Sharia can coexist with a secular legal framework that protects human rights.

Ibn Khaldun, a medieval historian and philosopher, discussed the importance of the rule of law and the need for rulers to adhere to the principles of justice and equity as prescribed by Islamic law in his work “The Muqaddimah.”

The determining characteristic of an Islamic State is its total commitment and will to see that the Syari’ah is codified into the law of the land, and implemented in letter and spirit. However, it is not a theocracy, ruled by clergy. Secondly, only the Muslim members of the state are subjected to the Shari’ah Penal Code (Hudud, Qisas, and Ta’zir). Non-Muslim members of the state enjoy the freedom of religious beliefs/practices and are provided full protection by the state

3. Importance of Shura for Statecraft

The concept of “Shura” is a fundamental principle in Muslim political philosophy, emphasizing the importance of consultation, deliberation, and consensus-building in the governance of an Islamic state. The Rashidun Caliphs practiced shura by consulting with advisors and the community before making important decisions. This historical practice is cited as an example of participatory governance in early Islamic history. The importance of Shura as one of the most important principles of the statecraft in an Islamic state is based on the following:

1. Divine Guidance: Shura is seen as a principle rooted in divine guidance. The Quran contains verses that encourage consultation among believers, suggesting that it is a means of seeking God’s wisdom and ensuring that decisions align with Islamic principles.
2. Participatory Governance: Shura promotes participatory governance, allowing citizens to have a voice in state affairs. It underscores the idea that decision-making should not be the sole prerogative of rulers but should involve input from various segments of society. Shura contributes to accountability in governance. When leaders engage in consultation, they become more accountable to the people they serve, fostering transparency and reducing the risk of authoritarianism.
3. Consensus-Building: Shura emphasizes the importance of consensus-building and reaching agreements through deliberation. This approach seeks to minimize conflicts and divisions within the community. Consultation is seen as a means of arriving at better, more informed decisions. By gathering diverse perspectives and expertise, the decision-making process becomes more robust.

One of the earliest proponents of Shura was Caliph Umar, the second Caliph of Islam. During his rule, he frequently sought counsel from companions and respected members of the community, demonstrating the practical application of Shura in governance. Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE) discussed the importance of Shura in his political philosophy. and viewed it as a means of achieving social harmony and ensuring that rulers act in the best interests of the community. Al-Farabi’s ideas influenced later discussions on Shura.

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE) highlighted the role of the shura in his work “The Muqaddimah”, and considered it essential for establishing just and stable governments. He argued that rulers who consult with their advisors and subjects are more likely to succeed and maintain their rule. Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198 CE) discussed Shura in his works on political philosophy. He emphasized the importance of consultation and deliberation in ensuring good governance and the rule of law. His writings contributed to the development of political thought in the Islamic world.

While different scholars have different understandings of this principle, most Muslim scholars agree that Islamic al-Shura should consist of:

1. Group of pious Muslims known for their integrity among the Muslim community
2. The issue should be of “maslahah ammah” or public interest.
3. There is a leader elected among them to head the meeting.
4. Consultation among themselves, following the guidelines of the Quran and Sunnah
5. The discussion should be based on mushawarah and mudhakarah.
6. All members are given a fair opportunity to voice their opinions.
7. The voices of the majority are accepted, provided they do not violate the teachings of the Quran or Sunnah.
8. Consultation is exercised by the six sliding scale sources, namely the Holy Quran, Ahadis, examples of Caliphs, Ijtemah, Qiayse, and IJTIHAD. ‘Ijtihad’is the best decision that takes into consideration the benefits, risks, and disadvantages of a certain stand.

4. Ijtehad vs. Taqleed (Independent Reasoning vs. Blind Imitation)

This is one of the most debated concepts in Muslim political philosophy Almost every Muslim political scholar has discussed the balance between independent reasoning (ijtihad) and blind imitation (taqleed) when interpreting and applying Islamic law. Ijtihad emphasizes the importance of individual reasoning and scholarly interpretation in adapting Islamic principles to contemporary contexts. Taqleed, on the other hand, involves following established schools of thought or religious authorities without questioning their rulings. This tension between ijtihad and taqleed has implications for governance and legal systems. Ibn Taymiyyah, a prominent medieval Islamic scholar, advocated for a more conservative approach, emphasizing taqleed and strict adherence to traditional interpretations, while others like Al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd emphasized the importance of ijtihad and adapting Islamic jurisprudence to the changing needs of society.

(You can read the views of different Muslim political scholars on this issue in my next article.)

5. Obedience to the Ruler (Imama and Khilafah)

Obedience to the ruler (Imama vs. Khilafa), reflecting respect for and recognition of authority, is regarded as a moral duty and a means of upholding the principles of authority in Islam. It is a fundamental principle in Muslim political philosophy, emphasizing the importance of following and obeying the rightful leader in an Islamic state. This principle is based on Islamic teachings and carries several key points:

1. Legitimacy of Authority: Irrespective of the mode of his ascension to power, obedience to the ruler underscores the legitimacy of political authority in an Islamic state. It recognizes that the ruler, whether an Imam (spiritual leader) or a Khalifa (political leader), derives their authority from God and is entrusted with the responsibility of governing according to Islamic principles.
2. Unity and Stability: Obedience is seen as essential for maintaining unity and stability within the Muslim community (ummah). It helps prevent internal conflicts and divisions that can weaken the community and hinder its progress. Obedience contributes to social order and the rule of law. It ensures that government decisions and policies are implemented effectively and that justice is administered impartially.
3. Accountability: While obedience is emphasized, it does not absolve the ruler from accountability. Muslim political philosophy holds that rulers are accountable to God for their actions and must govern in accordance with Islamic principles, ensuring justice, the protection of rights, and the welfare of the people.

Al-Mawardi (972–1058 CE): Al-Mawardi wrote extensively on governance and the responsibilities of rulers in his book “The Ordinances of Government” (al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya). He emphasized obedience to the ruler as a key principle and argued that rebellion against a just ruler was not permissible. Imam Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE), who followed him, discussed the concept of obedience to the ruler in his works and emphasized the importance of obeying a just ruler as an obligation upon the Muslim community. He argued that disobedience to a just ruler would lead to chaos and the breakdown of societal order.

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE) advocated strict adherence to Islamic principles by rulers and subjects alike. He believed that rulers should be held accountable for their actions and that disobedience to a ruler who violated Islamic law was permissible. His views influenced later discussions on the legitimacy of political authority.Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037 CE): Ibn Sina, a prominent Persian polymath, contributed to discussions on political philosophy in his work “The Book of Healing.” He discussed the necessity of obedience to the ruler for the sake of social order and emphasized the ruler’s role in maintaining justice and promoting the common good.

Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE) also highlighted the importance of obedience to the ruler in his political philosophy and believed that obedience to a just ruler was essential for maintaining social harmony and the common good. These views were echoed by Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE), who thoroughly examined the concept of obedience to the ruler in his writings. He discussed the dynamics of political authority and how obedience could be maintained through the ruler’s ability to provide security and promote the welfare of the people.

These scholars and thinkers have contributed to the discourse on the importance of obedience to the ruler in Muslim political philosophy. While their perspectives vary on the circumstances under which disobedience may be permissible, they collectively underscore the significance of obedience to just and legitimate authority within an Islamic state.

These scholars and thinkers have contributed to the rich and diverse discussions on obedience to the ruler within Islamic political philosophy. Their views reflect the complexities of this concept, taking into account different historical contexts, legal schools, and interpretations of Islamic principles.

Where does a ruler derive his legitimacy in an Islamic state, and can he be overthrown?

The legitimacy of a ruler in an Islamic state is derived from several sources within Islamic jurisprudence and political philosophy. The specific sources and conditions may vary depending on the Islamic school of thought and historical context, but some key principles include:

1. Sharia Compliance: A ruler’s legitimacy in an Islamic state is often contingent on their adherence to Islamic law (Sharia). They are expected to rule in accordance with the principles and values of Islam, upholding justice, protecting the rights of citizens, and promoting the common good. This principle is rooted in Quranic verses and Hadith that emphasize the importance of just governance.

Quran (Surah An-Nisa, 4:58): “Indeed, Allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due and when you judge between people, to judge with justice.”

Hadith (Sahih Bukhari): The Prophet Muhammad said, “Those who are entrusted with the affairs of the Muslims and act sincerely for their welfare will enjoy the protection of Allah, but those who betray His trust in respect of them will not enjoy His protection.”

2. Consent and Acceptance of the Community: A ruler’s legitimacy may also be based on the consent and acceptance of the Muslim community (ummah). In some historical contexts, rulers were chosen or accepted by a consensus of religious scholars, tribal leaders, and the public. This concept reflects the idea of “bay’ah” (pledge of allegiance), where the ruler is recognized as a legitimate leader by the community.

Hadith (Sahih Bukhari): The Prophet Muhammad said, “Whoever gives me the pledge of allegiance on the basis of hearing that I am the Messenger of Allah… then he pledges allegiance to me on the basis that he hears from me that I am the Messenger of Allah.”

3. Divine Appointment (for Shia Muslims): In Shia Islam, the legitimacy of rulership is often associated with divine appointment. Shia Muslims believe that the Imams, who are considered divinely chosen leaders, have a special spiritual and moral authority. The Imams are seen as the legitimate rulers by virtue of their divine appointment.

Shia Hadith: Shia Muslims refer to various Hadith traditions that emphasize the divine appointment of the Imams as leaders of the Muslim community.

Regarding the question of whether a ruler can be overthrown in Islamic political philosophy, the conditions and justifiability of such actions have been debated by scholars. In general, it is considered permissible for the Muslim community to resist or remove a ruler under certain circumstances, such as when the ruler violates Islamic principles, engages in tyranny, or neglects the welfare of the people. However, the process of removal should ideally be carried out through peaceful and lawful means, such as through consultation, legal processes, or the guidance of religious scholars.

It’s important to note that the specific conditions and justifiability of overthrowing a ruler can vary among Islamic scholars and schools of thought, and it often depends on the interpretation of Islamic principles and the historical context. Therefore, it is crucial to consult with qualified scholars or legal authorities within a particular Islamic tradition for specific guidance on this matter.

6. Seerat of a Ruler as his Legitimacy

One of the cardinal principles of statecraft in an Islamic state is the emphasis given to the personal conduct and behaviour of the people in power over the formal structure and procedures. The citizens of an Islamic state are expected to render their obedience and trust to the leadership of the country for as long as they obey Allah. Should the leaders fail to abide by Allah’s law, the citizens are entitled to remove them.

Islamic political thought often discusses the virtues and qualities that a good ruler should possess. These qualities include wisdom, justice, mercy, and a deep understanding of Islamic law. Al-Mawardi, a medieval Islamic jurist and political philosopher, outlined the qualities of a just ruler in his book “The Ordinances of Government.” He argued that a ruler should prioritize the welfare of the people and maintain justice through the application of Islamic law.

Islamic political philosophy acknowledges the importance of holding rulers accountable for their actions. This accountability can take the form of public opinion, legal mechanisms, or other means. The concept of “hisbah” in Islamic law involves the duty of enjoining good and forbidding evil. It has been invoked historically as a means for the community to hold rulers accountable for their actions.

7. Justice as the Foundation of State

Justice is a foundational principle in Islamic political thought. It includes both social justice (ensuring fair distribution of resources) and procedural justice (ensuring fair and equitable processes). The Quran contains numerous verses emphasizing justice, and scholars like Al-Mawardi and Ibn Taymiyyah elaborated on the importance of justice as a key element in Islamic governance.

Islamic political philosophy emphasizes the importance of social justice and the equitable distribution of resources. It often critiques oppressive rulers and calls for the protection of the rights and dignity of all citizens.. The Islamic concept of “maslaha” (public interest) has been used by various scholars to argue for policies that promote social justice and the well-being of the community. This concept is found in the works of scholars like Al-Ghazali.

8. The Role of the Ulema (Religious Scholars)

Islamic political philosophy addresses the role of religious scholars (ulema) in guiding and advising rulers, interpreting Islamic law and ethics, and influencing government policies. In many Muslim-majority countries, religious scholars held positions of influence and authority, offering religious guidance to rulers and the broader community. This role has evolved over time and varies in its extent and impact.

9. Rights and Freedoms

Islamic political thought recognizes certain fundamental rights and freedoms for individuals, including the right to life, property, and freedom of belief and expression. The scope and interpretation of these rights can vary among scholars and cultures. Islamic political philosophers have explored the ideas of religious tolerance and coexistence in diverse societies, emphasizing the need for peaceful relations among different religious and cultural groups. The medieval philosopher Al-Farabi discussed the importance of a diverse society where different religious and ethnic communities could coexist peacefully, provided they adhered to principles of justice and the common good.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948, drew inspiration from various philosophical traditions, including Islamic principles of justice and rights.

10. Jihad and Just War Theory

The concept of jihad, often misunderstood as “holy war,” has been the subject of extensive discussion in Islamic political philosophy. Scholars have developed a just war theory within Islamic ethics, outlining the conditions under which armed conflict is permissible and what constitutes a just cause. Ibn Rushd and Ibn Taymiyyah contributed to discussions on the ethics of war and jihad. They argued that defensive wars aimed at protecting the Muslim community or preserving justice can be considered just.

11. Unity of the Muslim Ummah

Islamic political thought often calls for the unity of the Muslim community (Ummah) and the avoidance of divisions and conflicts that weaken the community. The idea of Muslim unity was central to the Pan-Islamic movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which aimed to unify Muslim-majority regions and promote solidarity among Muslims against colonial powers.

Conclusion

It’s important to note that these core ideas can vary across different historical periods and schools of thought within Islamic political philosophy. Additionally, the interpretations and applications of these ideas have evolved and continue to be the subject of debate among contemporary Muslim scholars and thinkers, reflecting the multifaceted nature of Islamic thought and its adaptation to changing historical and societal contexts.

From the Ebook “Muslim Political Philosophy: A Hand Book”, published by Amazon and available at

Muslim Political Philosophy: A Hand Book