Imam Ghazali: Political Philosophy
Introduction
Famous as Algazelus or Algazel in Medieval Europe, Al Ghazali is known as one of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians, and mystics of the Islamic Golden Age.
He is considered to be the 5th century’s mujaddid, a renewer of the faith, who Muslims believe appears once every 100 years to restore the faith of the Islamic community. His works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that al-Ghazali was awarded the honorific title “Proof of Islam” (Ḥujjat al-Islām).
Believing that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslims had been forgotten, he wrote his magnum opus entitled “The Revival of the Religious Sciences,” which introduced fundamentalism in Islamic history. Among his other works, the Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (“Incoherence of the Philosophers”) is a landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th-century Europe.
While studying a political philosopher, kindly keep in mind his personal life experiences and the socio-economic and political conditions of the time he was living in. Both have a deep impact on his ideas. Imam Ghazali is no exception
Imam Ghazali's Life
Imam Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) was the son of a cotton trader, born in Ghazzalah, Tous, in the Khurasan province of Iran. He studied under Imam Abu Nasr Ismaeli, hence his Shia leanings. Studied at the best educational institutions of his time at Nishapur.
Still in his 20s, he became the chief canonist of Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi until 1091 CE, when Tusi was murdered. His murder and then the death of Malik Shah in 1092, changed his life, took an interest in spirituality. became critical of the pomp and show, retiring into the wilderness and then to Hajj.
Imam Ghazali's Time
Al-Ghazali lived in a period marked by the intellectual tension between philosophy and kalam, political and religious tensions between Sunni and Shiite and practical political tensions during the Abbasid dynasty
The Islamic political arena was unstable because the caliph was a mere puppet, real political power and government were with the Seljuk sultans. Moreover, the Abbasid Caliphate split into several small governments, led by its rulers, and formally acknowledged the caliph as head of state
However, it was the Batinites, led by Hasan bin Sabah, who unleashed a reign of terror. Al-Ghazali had to leave Baghdad because of security threats from Bthiniyyah caused by the Fathimiyyah Caliphate’s support in Egypt to undermine the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
Core Ideas of Political Philosophy of Al Ghazali
- State as a Theo-democracy
- Good Governance as an ideal s of Politics and Government
- Qualities of Amir or Ruler
- Daily Routines and Duties of “Amir”
1. Theo-democratic Nature of State
Believing that religion and the state are inseparable, as both, have functions that mutually reinforce each other, Al-Ghazali considers the state as a theo-democracy, where the people must support the leadership under religion’s demands (Islam).
However, he does not differentiate between Shia Imamate or Sunni Caliphate for its eligibility for leadership because, for Al-Ghazali, it is not the issue of mandatory and non-mandatory, or d.arūrī or non-d.arūrī, but a religious obligation.
Believing that the real world is an afterlife field, Al Ghazali maintains that Religion does not fulfill its purpose if it does not participate in providing solutions to world problems. As such, the leader must establish a country as a religious entity.
To Al Ghazali, power and religion are twin sisters (taw’amān). The faith is a pole, while the ruler (imām) as a power is its guard. The building would collapse and be lost without the bar. It is maintained not only by the ruler but also by the regularity of the civil order.
2. Good governance is the Islamic ideal of politics and government.
Ghazali maintains that a ruler must ensure an efficient and systematic government to bring about progress and peace in the state. He appears to be particular about the duties and functions of the sovereign so that the administration of the state does not become unwieldy and dogmatic.
He expressed his views about governance in his book Nasihat ul Maluk, addressed to Sultan Muhammad ibn Malik Shah. It is in the genre of Mirror of Princes, a sort of guidebook like The Prince of Machiavelli.
Al-Ghazali outlines ten principles likened to the branches of the tree of faith, providing insight into al-Ghazali's thought and spirituality, which may truly be called an Islamic ideal of politics and government.
- Justice
The first principle expounded by al-Ghazzali is justice. In explaining this, he says that authority (wilayah) is a great blessing since he who exercises it righteously obtains unsurpassed happiness, but if any ruler fails to do so, he incurs torment surpassed only by the torment of unbelief.
This is proven by the tradition of the Prophet of Islam (SAS), who said: “One day of just rule by an equitable sultan is more meritorious than sixty years of continual worship.”
Apart from being just, the sultan is also reminded that he must discipline his subordinates, such as slave troops (ghulaman), companions, servants (Cum mal) and officers, and never tolerate unjust conduct from them, for he is not only accountable for his unjust deeds but also those of his staff.
2. Ulema as Guides
The second principle, mentioned by al-Ghazzali is that the ruler should always be compelled to seek out devout ulemas and ask for their advice. However, the ruler is warned not to meet with ulema of worldly ambitions who might inveigle, flatter, and seek to please him to gain undue favour.
3. Qualities
He enumerates the necessary qualities of an ideal ruler and reverently expresses that he should have intellect, knowledge, perception, the right proportion of things, chivalry, love for his subjects, a diplomatic bent, foresight, strong willpower, and be well-informed of the news of the day and the history of the kings. He must learn from the past kings. He should not repeat the errors and failures of his predecessors. Amir must also vigilantly watch that his judges, secretaries, viceroys, and other officers do their work well, it is chiefly in these qualities that a ruler becomes the shadow of God on earth.
The rest of the principles are the qualities and actions that Al Ghazali demands of the sultan and are, generally, of an ethical nature. These include the advice to the king to overcome pride, to imagine himself in the position of the subjects, not to do things that he would not wish to be done to himself, not to treat with contempt those who come to him in need, to avoid luxury, and to act in conformity with the shari’ah in striving to satisfy his subjects.
4. Two Springs
Having mentioned the roots and the branches of the tree of faith for the sultan, al-Ghazzali then explains the two springs (Caynayn) that provide water (mashrab). The first spring is knowledge of this lower world, which, he says, is not a fixed abode, for the ultimate home of man transcends it in the hereafter. He then includes ten analogies to describe the ugliness of this world.
The second spring is knowledge of the last breath (a/-nafs a/-tikhir) which is illustrated through five anecdotes.
5. Jehad
The ability to wage jihad is conditioned by the possession of power and courage. It has always been considered one of the foremost duties of the Caliph. But Al-Ghazali, faced with a young Caliph and a powerful Seljuq master, explains away its absence in Al-Mustazhir by pointing to the Shawka, the force and power of the Seljuqs, which guarantees the najda required of the Caliph. He wants to think of them not as independent rulers but as loyal servants of the Caliph.”
6. Simplicity
Al-Ghazali persistently stresses that the ruler should be simple in his habits. He says that Amir should have a limited source of income, which does not provide him with a possible opportunity to indulge in luxury and debauchery. He says that Amir must spend his life according to the income at his disposal, and should not abundantly and lavishly spend so that the economy of the country may not be disturbed. Al-Ghazali quotes the Apostle saying that God would be kind and compassionate to rulers who are themselves meek and kind to their people. He regards Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz as a model of justice, equality, and simplicity, who once wanted his monthly salary in advance to buy the Eid clothes for his daughters but desisted from drawing it from the state treasury because he was reminded by Finance Minister that there was no certainty of his living for the month for which he wished to draw his pay.
Daily Routines and Duties of “Amir”
Al-Ghazali says that the daily routines of an Amir should be the following:
- The Amir, after morning prayers, should go out riding to have an investigation in person about wrongs done to his subject.
- He should then sit in court and permit all and sundry to have direct access so that he might have first-hand information about any complaints.
- The ruler should make a point of taking advice from simple men of knowledge, intelligence, and experience.
- The ruler must extend interviews to foreign ambassadors and envoys. He should be well-versed in diplomacy and politics.
- Al-Ghazali strictly warns the Amir against too much indulgence in drink, chess, or hunting and says that the best mode of living a simple life is to practice it.
- The Amir and good kings should divide their time into four parts, setting aside one for prayers, another for state affairs, justice, and counsel of the learned about the affairs of the state, the third for food and rest, and the last for recreation and hunting.
- He is very particular that the Amir should not pay heed to the advice offered by his women favourites and quotes the instance of Umar, who divorced his favourite wife when he was elated to his exalted office for fear of being influenced by her in state affairs.
- Al-Ghazali warns that the ruler must not show them any favouritism, but instead appoint people on merit.
B. Impact
Al-Ghazali is undoubtedly an outstanding and remarkable political scholar in Islam. His philosophy is an expression of his personality, his life experience, and most importantly, the sociopolitical conditions of the Islamic world at the time. He abandoned the attempt to understand this world, but the religious problem he comprehended much more profoundly than did the philosophers of his time.
1. Prolific Writer: Imam Ghazali was a prolific writer who left behind indelible impressions because of his immortal works and philosophical-cum-political doctrines which have still influenced this modern age. Maulana Shibli Nuamani has compiled an alphabetical list of all his essays and books in some 40 volumes and lists 67 books.
2. Great Islamic Philosopher: Al-Ghazali was aptly considered a mujaddid and reckoned at par with the four Imams. There have been many philosophers and scholars in Islam and other religions, but the distinct calibre of one of the great philosophers ushered in a unique era of knowledge in his age.
3. Bridge: He is one of the greatest and most distinguished original philosophers not only in the history of Muslim philosophy but also in the history of human thought. He filled the great gap that seems to exist between the decline of Roman thought at the beginning of the Christian era and about the thirteenth century.
During these European Dark Ages, when thought seemed dull, constitutions were unscientific, and people were lethargic and pleasure-loving. Europe, at the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth centuries of the Christian era, was in the abyss of degradation and political degeneration. This period is dubbed by one of the greatest modern political scientists as “essentially unpolitical”.
It was because of these Arab scholars like Al Farabi, Al-Mawardi, Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi, and Al-Ghazali that the great works of great philosophers reached Europe.
4. Modern: Al-Ghazali’s philosophical analysis, logical positivism, and religious empiricism have profoundly influenced every age of philosophy and religion, and even today, modern students of political history seek inspiration in solving all philosophical and political inquiries. His liberalism and intellectualism completely dominated Western philosophy, and even Western thinkers preserved the main elements of his great philosophy in their works.
5. Hitti’s criticism: It is certainly difficult to agree with the unfounded and sweeping statement of Hitti that Al-Ghazali constructed such a scholastic shell for Islam that all its future progress became arrested within it. If the progress of the West consisted, as it is said, in breaking a similar shell within the context of his religion, then quite a few hammer strokes therein were wrought by the hands of the Muslim thinkers, of which the uppermost hand was the hand of Al-Ghazali. This anybody might see for himself by making a close study of Al-Ghazali’s influence on the West.
Conclusion
Imam Ghazali’s contributions to Islamic political philosophy are both profound and enduring. His vision of a state as a theo-democracy underscores the inseparability of religion and governance, advocating for a leadership that embodies and enforces religious principles to maintain a just and orderly society. Al-Ghazali’s emphasis on good governance as an ideal reveals his acute awareness of the practical necessities for an effective administration, highlighting the importance of a ruler’s just and ethical conduct. His intricate detailing of the qualities and daily duties of an Amir reflects his belief in the moral and intellectual preparedness required for leadership, which aligns closely with his broader philosophical and spiritual pursuits.
Ghazali’s works, notably “The Revival of the Religious Sciences” and “Nasihat ul Muluk,” provide a comprehensive framework for governance that combines spiritual guidance with practical political advice. His critique of philosophical traditions, particularly through “The Incoherence of the Philosophers,” marks a significant departure from Aristotelian thought and sets the stage for later developments in both Islamic and Western philosophy. His insistence on the ruler’s accountability, simplicity, and adherence to ethical principles underscores his belief in the integral role of moral integrity in leadership.
The socio-political context of Ghazali’s time, marked by instability and intellectual tensions, deeply influenced his thought. Living during a period of Sunni and Shiite strife, and the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate, Ghazali’s writings address the need for a cohesive and morally upright leadership to navigate the complexities of his era. His personal experiences, from the loss of his patron Nizam-ul-Mulk to his subsequent spiritual awakening, shaped his philosophical and political outlook, blending personal piety with public duty.
Al-Ghazali’s impact extends far beyond his lifetime. He bridged the intellectual gap between the ancient and medieval worlds, influencing both Islamic and Western thought. His prolific writing and profound insights continue to be studied and revered, cementing his status as a mujaddid, a renewer of the faith. His works remain relevant, offering timeless guidance on the intersection of religion, ethics, and governance. As modern scholars and students of political history seek inspiration in addressing contemporary issues, Ghazali’s legacy endures, exemplifying the enduring power of philosophical and spiritual synthesis in shaping political thought and practice.
From the book “Muslim Political Philosophy: A Hand Book”, published by Amazon and available at
