Ibne Khaldun: Political Philosophy

Introduction

An Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian, Ibne Khaldun is widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages who made major contributions in multiple areas of the social sciences.

His best-known book, the Muqaddamah or Prolegomena (“Introduction”), influenced 17th- and 19th-century Ottoman historians who used its theories to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Recently, Ibn Khaldun’s works have been compared with those of several influential European philosophers, suggesting that their ideas found precedent in his. He has also been influential on certain modern Islamic thinkers

While reading a political philosopher, always keep in mind his personal life experiences and the socio-economic and political conditions of the time he was living. Both have a deep impact on his ideas. Ibne Khaldun was no exception

B. Ibne Khaldun-His Life

Ibne Khuldua (1332–1406/732–808 AH), born in Tunis, belonged to an upper-class Andalusian family of Arab descent. His family’s high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to get the best classical Islamic education, memorising the Holy Quran by heart

Following family tradition, he was destined for high political and administrative posts but remained involved in palace intrigues, was imprisoned, exiled, went into hiding, and lived with a Berber tribe. Once, he joined an underground organisation striving for social change

C. Ibne Khuldun's Time

Ibne Khaldun lived in tumultuous times. The rapidly shifting political situation in North Africa. The rapidly developing world required a high degree of skill in developing and dropping alliances prudently to avoid falling into the short-lived regimes of the time. He was a master in such matters

D. Core Ideas of Ibne-Khaldun

1. Asabiyya as the foundation of Society
2. Origin of State
3. Good Governance
4. Qualities of leadership
5. Cyclical nature of civilisations
6. Political Economy of Ibne Khuldun

1. Asabiyya as the foundation of Society

Although the concept of asabiyya (group cohesion) for which Ibne Khaldun is famous is not his original idea, as this concept was familiar in the pre-Islamic era, Ibne Khaldun re-invented it and made it the basis of all his political philosophy.

Originally used in the context of tribalism and clanism, Ibne Khaldun popularised Asabiyya as the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force of history. The bond exists at any level of civilization, from nomadic societies to states and empires.

Though Ibn Khaldun’s theory of administration is based upon Islamic principles, he has laid great stress on Asabiyya or a sense of belonging, based upon fundamental beliefs of religion and faith, as it motivates people to form a group that will eventually emerge as nationalities.

According to Ibne Khaldun, Asabiyya is essential in the development of civilized life, and in creating a structured system of government. It not only helps select the leaders but also legitimises and gives power to a government by encouraging a sense of obedience among people

2. Origin of the State

Ibn Khaldun asserted that human beings, being superior, were created as political or social beings in nature, as they always need one another to sustain life. Besides the need for food, human beings also require help in defence against threats or danger.

Therefore to fulfill these requirements, there is a need for social contact between people to help and cooperate with each other, especially in the production of crops, and food supplies and also in defence. Thus, civilized human life begins with the establishment & growth of a city

It also requires appointing someone with authority and control. The appointing of a leader results in the formation of a reign (al-daulah) leading to the formation of the administrative system, the development of an economic system, production, technologies, culture, the arts, and so forth.

Ibne Khaldun considered the state a natural and essential accompaniment to humans. However, he also stated that humans were only obligated to the state if it was governed under Shari’a law, a thought that aligned itself with a Sunni perspective.

Ibn Khaldun affirmed that civilization cannot be achieved through coercion; instead, it has to be attained through cooperation, among human beings. Hence, certain values need to be inculcated in the individual self and spread to everyone’s heart.

3. Good Governance

According to Ibne Khaldun, there are direct connections between good governance, good leadership, economic prosperity, and civilization excellence. For this, he stresses formulating a set of rules, and regulations to ensure a harmonious and orderly society.

Ibn Khaldun asserted that good governance has minimum bureaucracy, minimum mercenary armies to keep law and order, and minimum taxation on its citizens to finance the activities of the state administration.

Likewise, he believed that the actualization of good governance would reduce and eliminate tribal struggles and communal confrontations in society. Ibn Khaldun noted a clear connection between property rights and justice.

In his theory of good governance, Ibn Khaldun also listed three types of ruling government models which consist of

1. Siyasah Tabiiyyah: government based on natural rule) refers to a ruling government that governs the country with its desires, wills and lust.
2. Siyasah Aqliyya: government based on reason) which refers to a government that is based on rational and man-made laws.
3. Siyasah Diniyyah: government based on religion) where laws are derived from religious teachings

Hence, in his theory of good governance, Ibn Khaldun suggested the importance of Asabiyyah which denotes group solidarity and a sense of belonging that can only ensure good character and high qualifications for leadership

4. Characteristics of a Good Leader for Good Governance

The concepts of good governance and leadership are deeply intertwined in Ibne Khaldun’s political philosophy. These two are intricately linked with his concept of Asabiyya which helps in selecting a suitable leader

Terming the leader Khalifa (Vice-regent of God on Earth), Ibn Khaldun maintains that he must implement and fulfil the responsibility of managing all that is under his rule with trust and empathy. For this purpose, he highlights some characteristics of a good leader.

1. Knowledgeable: Ibn Khaldun lists self-knowledge, high prudence, willingness to carry out responsibility and execute punishment fairly and having a perfect body and senses without any defects that can affect his judgments and actions to implement religious as well as worldly affairs
2. Statecraft: Furthermore, a leader must possess knowledge related to governance. Without the knowledge of politics and administration, a leader will not be able to implement the rule smoothly, especially in considering matters related to the state administration.
3. Decision Maker: A leader must be able to make decisions as a Mujtahid. With extensive knowledge and experience, a leader will be able to make ijtihad (religious decisions) and avoid blind taqlid (following blindly) of his advisors’ opinions by appointing capable assistants
4. Personal Qualities: Moreover, other good characteristics of a leader listed by Ibn Khaldun include attributes such as love to do good, being highly prudent, generous, tolerant of the weak, respect for the guests, being patient in facing trials, faithful in performing duty, honour religious scholars and upholding religious tenets, executing God’s commandments vigilantly, respecting older people and teachers, and being humble to the poor. Want to remember these? (Just remember what your parents wanted you to be!)
5. Asabiyyah Spirit: A great fan of Asabiyya, Ibne Khaldun emphasises that a leader must feel that the people under his ruling power are part of his own family. As such, he will always be sincerely willing to serve and sacrifice for their betterment and defence.
6. Jehad: In the light of Islamic teachings, it is the responsibility of a leader to spread Islam and uphold its message. In this case, missionary activities need to be implemented to raise the spirit of religion in a society so that everyone will adhere to the truth.

5. Cyclic Theory of Civilisation

Ibn Khaldun was the most prominent medieval Muslim scholar, famed for his theory and philosophy of history and insights into the rise and fall of civilizations. Ibn Khaldun categorized the five stages of the development of a ruling government.

1. First is the phase of construction. At this stage, the feeling of group solidarity helps the people choose a leader and gives him authority to rule.
2. Second is the phase of consolidation, whereby the leader tries to recruit followers to strengthen his leadership.
3. Third is the prosperous stage when the ruling power enjoys sovereignty and the people live in harmony.
4. Fourth is the stage of contentment, where people enjoy a peaceful and prosperous life.
5. Fifth is a stage of decay that occurred when the ruling power started to involve tyranny, greed, and lust, heading towards its destruction.

After the decay of the government, a new civilization will emerge and the stages will be repeatedly experienced by the new government

6.Political Economy of Ibne Khuldun

Ibn Khaldun was the first to systematically analyze the function of the economy and the role of government in its stabilization and growth, to enforce a minimum amount of surplus through taxation to provide appropriate services necessary for public works

He maintains that the government has to play a significant role in establishing law and order conducive to economic activity. It must focus on the enforcement of property rights, protection of trade routes and security to ensure peaceful and harmonious trade relations and production

D. Impact

Four centuries before Kant (1724–1804), Charles Darwin (1809–1882), and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) had already adopted a rational but believer’s approach to observing civilization and societal change. British historian Arnold J. Toynbee has called Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah “the greatest work of its kind.”

Ernest Gellner once a professor of philosophy and logic at the London School of Economics, considered Khaldun’s definition of government the best in the history of political theory.

Arthur alaffer for whom the Laffer Curve is named, acknowledged that Ibn Khaldun’s ideas, as well as others, precede his work on that curve. Economist Paul Krugman described Ibn Khaldun as “a 14th-century Islamic philosopher who invented what we would now call the social sciences”

Laffer cites Ibn Khaldun’s observation that “at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large revenue from small assessments. At the end of the dynasty, taxation yields a small revenue from large assessments.”

In 1981, U.S. President Ronald Reagan cited Ibn Khaldun as an influence on his supply-side economic policies, also known as Reaganomics. He paraphrased Ibn Khaldun, who said that “at the beginning of the dynasty, great tax revenues were gained from small assessments,” and that “at the end of the dynasty, small tax revenues were gained from large assessments.” Reagan said his goal is “trying to get down to the small assessments and the great revenues.”

19th-century Scottish theologian and philosopher Robert Flint praised him strongly, “As a theorist of history, he had no equal in any age or country until Vico appeared, more than three hundred years later. Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine were not his peers, and all others were unworthy of being even mentioned along with him”.

Ibn Khaldun’s work on the evolution of societies also influenced Egon Orowan, who coined the term sociology. While Ibn Khaldun’s record-keeping is usually passed over in favour of recognizing his contributions to the science of history, Abderrahmane Lakhsassi wrote, “No historian of the Maghreb since, and particularly of the Berbers, can do without his historical contribution.”