Global Terrorism: Challenges & Response

Outlines

1. Introduction
2. Terrorism Defined
3. Terrorism-Historical Background
4. Causes of Terrorism-Initiating Conditions-Pull/Push Factors
5. Causes of Terrorism-Sustaining Condition
6. Strategy to Curb Terrorism
7. Conclusion

Introduction

1. Terrorism is historical as well as a universal phenomenon; few countries can claim not to have been affected by this menace which is rising
2. Has been practised by every type of organisation, religious or non-religious, right-wing or left-wing. Muslims, Christians, Jews, Hindus
3. Consequently, the reasons for the terrorist activity and the identity of its perpetrators are always subject to the context, time, and place.

Terrorism Defined

1. Unfortunately, there is no consensus on its accurate definition; one country’s terrorists are another country’s freedom fighters
2. However, for this article, we can define, “terrorism” as

“any violent act of intentional targeting of non-combatants by a person or a group to create panic among the public to get tactical or strategic concessions from the policymakers for the accomplishment of their political or non-political goals.”

Terrorism in History: Ancient World

The following three groups are considered terrorists of the pre-modern era

1. Zealots: Jewish Zealots, the first organized terrorists whose acts of violence against Romans resulted in their banishment from Israel
2. Assassins: Followers of Hasan bin Sabah (10th century)-violence perpetrated by them on the order of their spiritual leader.
3. Thugs: Members of a secret Indian cult, worshipped Mother Kali, and operated as gangs of highway robbers, strangling their victims

Terrorism in History: Modern World

1. Jacobins: Who coined the term “terrorism” during French Revolution, killed more than 35,000 people to terrify French people into submission
2. Anarchists: Pioneers of modern terrorism at the global level, started in the 1880s in Russia, and later spread to Europe/North America.
3. Anti-colonial Terrorism: Terror groups that operated in Asia, and Africa during the last phase of colonialism and continued up to 1980sa.
4. Nationalist Terrorists: Zionist underground terrorist outfit Irgun known for the bombing of the King David Hotel on Monday, July 22, 1946
5. 1970s/80s Terrorists: Irish Republican Army, ETA in Spain and PLO/Black September in the Middle East, Tamil Tiger in Sri Lanka. Popularized suicide bombing/women suicide bombers, copied by the Jihadist terror organizations in the Middle East and Europe
6. Leftist Romantics: Those who took part in 1968 street demonstrations in European capitals became disillusioned. Taking armed struggle as a strategy to begin revolution; Italy’s Red Brigades, Germany’s Baader-Meinhof group
7. Pre-9/11 Terrorists: Trained by the CIA during the Soviet Afghan War, these radicalized Muslims took arms against the oppressive governments of ME. One such resistance group Al-Qaida led by Osama Bin Laden started global Jihad against the West after the American/NATO invasion during the First 1990 Gulf War.
8. Post 9/11 Terrorists: Terrorist activities carried out by radicalised Muslims after the actions taken by the USA when it launched War on Terrorism. Asserting that the only way to progress for Muslims is to follow the original religious principles of Islam practiced during the golden period of the Islamic Caliphate

Causes of Violence and Terrorism

Terrorism is a complex phenomenon; it is a specific kind of political violence committed by people who do not have a legitimate army at their disposal. Barring a few Lone Wolf cases, most of these conditions have to do with circumstances such as political, social repression, or economic strife.

There are two sets of conditions that make violence against civilians seem like a reasonable and even necessary option;

1. Conditions Facilitating Start of Terrorism-Pull Factors vs Push Factors
2. Conditions Facilitating Survival of Terrorism-4 Ss Model

Factors Initiating Terrorism: Pull Factors

Pull factors-something appealing in ideology, person, or organization

1. Appealing Idea: Maybe Intellectual underpinnings of organization/idea, promises of salvation in the hereafter,
2. Charismatic Personality: the sheer charismatic personality of the leader
3. Personal Quest: A personal quest, a sense of belonging to the ideology
4. Social Ties: social network, friendship, and kinship ties/compulsions
5. Excitement & Adventure: Sheer excitement of enjoying power, control, adventure, the possibility of heroism/ personal redemption usually attracts the rich.
6. Financial Benefits: Financial benefits of joining/escaping poverty
7. Protection: protection from the state agencies/mafias

Factors Initiating Terrorism: Push Factors

Push factors-reasons that force a person to become extremist or join a terrorist organization and start an armed struggle. Five main reasons for a group of people to resort to acts of violence

1. Marginalization
2. Identity Politics
3. Foreign Occupation/Interventions
4. Betrayal Syndrome
5. Lack of Political Empowerment

Push Factors-1: Marginalisation

Socioeconomic deprivation and political marginalisation of a significant minority, actual or perceived, create feelings of hatred against the state. Repression, and injustice justify for terrorists to mobilise people for protest, and join violent outfits if grievances are not redressed. To get the support of the silent majority of their group, they resort to their emotional manipulation by using cards of race, religion, caste, colour, etc. Then used by the vested interests, local or foreign, state or non-state, for the furtherance of their foreign policy or domestic agenda.

Push Factors-2: Identity Politics

Popularised by Francis Fukuyama, cultural marginalisation, produces alienation, a lack of belonging to home or parents’ society. 2nd generation of Muslim migrants to Europe are facing this identity crisis; not owned by host countries, links to their parent’s country weak

Consequently, this sociocultural isolation reinforces their religious solidarity with Muslims around the world; a sense of global belonging. Any issue of the greater Muslim Ummah is internalised by these isolated youths prompting them to turn extremist

Push Factors-3: Foreign Policy Options

Foreign occupation or foreign policy decisions of powerful countries against weaker countries arouse feelings of injustice and nationalism. Domestic grievances are framed around victimhood and military intervention. ‘West is at war with Islam’. Conflicts in Muslim countries are filtered through this core narrative. These conflicts and events can become a focal point for mobilisation. There is a keen sense of alienation and injustice which is reinforced by Islamophobia, xenophobia, and discriminatory acts of European states

Push Factors-4: Betrayal Syndrome

Global/regional powers create/support militant groups in their areas of respective interests for the furtherance of their fa foreign policy agenda. Once used, these militants are abandoned by their erstwhile sponsors; they, in turn, this identity crisis- a “disposal problem”. A feeling of betrayal turns these highly motivated and well-trained into hardcore Jihadists ready to take revenge for this betrayal. Unfit and un-welcome ta o re-absorb into their societies, these disgruntled elements join the militant groups to vent their anger and frustration

Push Factors-5: Lack of Political Empowerment

The majority of terrorists are from dictatorial countries where a lack of democracy makes people vulnerable to radical recruitment. Globalization is stoking aspirations of middle classes in every country for quality of life, political empowerment, social equality

However, in many Middle Eastern countries, adequate channels of expression do not exist for these groups to express their grievances. Consequently, these countries are increasingly witnessing outbursts of popular resentment, exploited by the vested elements/extremists

Factors Supporting Terrorism: 4 Ss Model

Push and Pull factors explain how people voluntarily join or are motivated to join extremist outfits. Irrespective of the reason for coming into existence of an extremist organisation, it ultimately needs four things to survive and succeed

1. Slogan/Cause

2. Support of People

3. Space for Operations

4. Sponsors-Finance and Armaments

Factors Sustaining Terrorism-1: Slogan/Cause

Terrorism must have a cause, how unachievable or absurd it may seem. It could be an armed struggle against occupation forces (i.e. Taliban fighting against NATO forces in Afghanistan). Or foreign policy decisions of outside states adversely affecting those resorting to terrorism (i.e. 9/11 or terrorist acts in Europe). Or a vocal group of minorities facing state oppression/social marginalisation may take up arms (i.e. Moros in the Philippines/ Rohingyas in Myanmar).

Factors Supporting Terrorism-2: Support

Terrorists need the shelter, support, and sympathy of the people they think they are fighting for. If they think that they are not being supported by the public, they start terrorist activities against them to force them to support them.

See the acts of terrorism by the Muslim militias against their people in this context.

“Terrorism is not necessarily about the number of people you kill; it’s about the terror you create.”-Peter Neumann

Factors Supporting Terrorism-3: Space

Terrorist organisations must have an area of operation for their terrorist activities, preferably an urban area to create maximum impact. Their main aim is to create panic among the public and awe the state by performing high visibility, maximum casualty acts of terrorism. The biggest challenge for agencies is to squeeze that space for the terrorists to carry out their acts of terrorism

Factors Supporting Terrorism-4: Sponsors

Whether they spring up spontaneously or are created by some agency, every terrorist organisation ultimately needs a foreign sponsor. It could be a global power, a regional aspirant for hegemony, or any disgruntled neighbour interested to achieve its national interests.

It provides them with finances, arms, training, and advice. Tamil Tigers, Mukti Bahini, Moros, Uyghurs, Hezbollah, IRA, Taliban, ISIS. Need global/regional and bilateral cooperation and negotiation to choke these sources; Otherwise, tit for tat strategy is needed

Anti-Terrorism Strategy

Stopping violence is rarely simple or easy. Only time and commitment by a majority of the parties involved can resolve​ a conflict. The multidimensional nature of terrorism demands adopting a long-term holistic and comprehensive approach to its eradication.

While Pull and Push causes of terrorism need long-term policies, the sources of survival of terrorism can be choked even in the short term.

Some of the measures are as follows;

Strategy to Counter Terrorism

1. Formulation of long-term Vision/Legal Framework

2. Use of Force-legitimate but adequate

3. Countering 4Ss-Slogan, Support, Space, Sponsors

4. Plugging in the sources- Discrimination, Poverty, Inequality, etc

5. Improving Criminal Justice System

6. Regional and Global Cooperation and Coordination

7. Mainstreaming Ex-Terrorists/Returning Foreign Fighters

Formulation of Vision/Legal Framework

A comprehensive framework for tackling terrorism, implemented in letter and spirit, intelligence gathering and better coordination

1. Carrot and stick strategy to announce amnesty for those who voluntarily renounce terrorism and severe punishment for others
2. Divide and eliminate strategy by infiltrating professional spies inside their ranks and creating dissension among them.
3. Hearts and mind strategy to win over those segments of the population who hold sympathies for these groups and provide them with support

Use of Force- Adequate, Legitimate

Four-point strategy to counter terrorism through the use of force

1. Do not kill the political head of the terrorist organisation. It would lead to the formation of splinter groups, difficult to trace. Secondly, we need him when finally negotiations are to be held
2. Do not spare the second tier of the terrorist outfit. Being the planners, these are the most dangerous persons in the organisation
3. Co-opt the third tier (field operators) of these terrorist organisation through every means possible-these are very helpful in locating the second-tier leadership
4. Win over the people living in the terror-prone area by carrying out development activities to ensure life is going on normal

Countering 4Ss

1. Slogan: Counter terrorist narrative with the better narrative using facts, logic, and emotions, and utilising opinion makers-religious scholars for this
2. Support: Find and choke the channels of material and financial support to the terrorist outfits
3. Space: Keep on limiting the space terrorists use to carry out terrorist activity by utilising all the technological and human intelligence
4. Sponsors: Similarly, take all measures, physical and diplomatic to restrain the access of terrorists to foreign sources of funds and arms

Improved Criminal Justice System

Improve the judicial system so that even hardened criminals and terrorists are convicted and sentenced with due process of law. Selection/appointment strictly on merit, their constant capacity building in modern techniques of investigation and prosecution.

Similarly, judges need to be appointed on merit and provided maximum security so that they can dispense justice without any fear or favour.

Constructing high-security prisons to confine the hardcore terrorists to ensure they do not have contact with the outfield commanders

Plugging in Sources of Terrorism

1. Poverty Reduction: Accelerate the growth but also a selective attack on the worst form of poverty through appropriate social safety nets.
2. Discrimination: Important driver of terrorism to be tackled through legislative measures, financial support, and development effort
3. Hate Literature: Control the spread of hate material against a group based on caste, creed or colour, or ethnicity.
4. Cyber Control: In these days of technological connectivity, rumours spread like wildfire. Effective measures needed to nip them in the bud

Mainstreaming Returning Foreign Fighters

Systematic re-absorption for foreign fighters who renounce terrorism and surrender, tackled by the special agency to check double-dealing

Not all returnees are dangerous. Treating all former fighters as high risk may radicalise them further through unwarranted persecution.

Government should thoroughly screen these returnees to identify the more dangerous among them to be punished under the law

However, select credible and trustworthy individuals who could become effective change agents to counter recruitment narratives of militants

Regional & Global Cooperation

Renunciation by all states not to use terrorist outfits as their proxies for the achievement of their narrow national interests

Formulation of a comprehensive strategy by involving all regional & global stakeholders-Intelligence sharing/Money Laundering/arrests

Marshall Plan style integrated development of main regions of terrorism (Middle East, Africa, Afghanistan/Pakistan, etc)

Peaceful resolution of long-simmering disputes-Palestine, Kashmir, etc

Good Governance/Human Development in ME as a priority by the UN/West

Conclusion

Despite the ambiguity of the definition, terrorism is a global and historical phenomenon with multiple sets of causes. As such, tackling it requires multidimensional and internal as well as an externally coordinated approach. However, all our counter-terrorism measures must conform to accepted norms of ethics and fundamental human rights

(From my book “International Relations: Basic Concepts & Global Issues”, available at Amazon https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08QZSRWT1)