Geological History of Pakistan: Its Relevance for Today

Introduction

According to the Theory of Continental Drift, the Subcontinent, including its north-western region, which is now Pakistan, was millions of years ago, part of a supercontinent, called Pangaea. At that time, it was attached to Madagascar and southern Africa on the southwest coast, and Australia along the east coast.

About 160 Million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, Pangaea broke into two mini super-continents, namely, Gondwana (to the south) and Laurasia (to the north). The part that later became the Subcontinent remained attached to Gondwana until it also broke into pieces about 125 million years ago. The Indian Plate then drifted northward toward the Eurasian Plate.

However, about 90 million years ago, the Indian Plate also separated from Madagascar and started its journey towards present-day Tibet, where it displaced the Tethys Ocean. The closure of this ocean resulted in the creation of the Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau in South Asia. This push, which is continuing, is causing parts of the Asian continent to deform westward and eastward on either side.

These geological developments have some serious implications for Pakistan;

1. Faultlines leading to Earthquakes

The joining of two tectonic plates has resulted in the creation of two major fault lines just beneath present-day Pakistan, making it one of the most earthquake-prone parts of the world. Almost 75% of the country is prone to earthquakes because of the presence of sub-tectonic routes spread over Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and the northern areas of Pakistan.

The 2005 earthquake, which caused massive human and material devastation in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, was just a reminder to be aware of the possibility of this happening again and again. If the centre of this earthquake had been a few miles to the east of where it occurred, the two major cities of Lahore and Multan could have been devastated.

While we cannot prevent the occurrence of earthquakes, it is crucial to take proactive measures to minimize human and material losses. Here are some preventive measures that a state should consider:

1. Building codes and regulations: Implement and enforce strict building codes that are designed to withstand seismic forces. These codes should ensure that structures, including homes, schools, hospitals, and critical infrastructure, are constructed with appropriate materials and techniques to resist earthquake damage.
2. Retrofitting: Identify and retrofit older buildings and critical infrastructure that do not meet current seismic safety standards. Strengthening existing structures can significantly reduce the risk of collapse or severe damage during an earthquake.
3. Zoning regulations: Establish and enforce zoning regulations that restrict or prohibit construction in high-risk areas, such as near fault lines or on unstable ground. This helps prevent the development of vulnerable structures in areas prone to seismic activity.
4. Early warning systems: Invest in early warning systems that can detect earthquakes and provide timely alerts to residents and critical facilities. These systems can give people a few seconds to minutes of advance warning, allowing them to take cover and shut down critical operations.
5. Public education and awareness: Launch comprehensive public education campaigns to raise awareness about earthquake risks, preparedness, and response strategies. Educate the population on how to react during an earthquake, including techniques such as “Drop, Cover, and Hold On.” Encourage individuals and families to develop emergency plans and assemble disaster supply kits.
6. Infrastructure resilience: Ensure that essential lifelines, such as water supply systems, power grids, and transportation networks, are designed and maintained to withstand seismic activity. Critical infrastructure should have redundant systems, backup power supplies, and alternative routes to ensure functionality during and after an earthquake.
7. Emergency response planning: Develop and regularly update emergency response plans at the state, regional, and local levels. Coordinate with emergency management agencies, first responders, and community organizations to establish effective communication networks, evacuation routes, and post-disaster recovery strategies.
8. International cooperation: Collaborate with international organizations, neighbouring states, and experts in earthquake-prone regions to share best practices, exchange knowledge, and coordinate disaster response efforts. This collaboration can lead to the development of standardized approaches and technologies for seismic risk reduction.
9. Research and monitoring: Invest in scientific research and monitoring systems to improve understanding of earthquake behaviour, fault lines, and seismic hazards. This information can help guide future infrastructure development and policy decisions.
10. Insurance and financial preparedness: Encourage individuals, businesses, and governments to obtain earthquake insurance coverage and establish contingency funds to aid in recovery and reconstruction efforts after an earthquake.

No doubt, these preventive measures can significantly reduce the impact of earthquakes, but it is impossible to completely eliminate the risk. Therefore, ongoing vigilance, preparedness, and continuous improvement of infrastructure and response systems are essential to ensuring the safety and well-being of communities in earthquake-prone areas.

2. Underground Water is Seawater

Despite the displacement of the Tethys Ocean by the Indian Plate, there are a large number of pockets of residual seawater beneath the territory forming Pakistan. Consequently, too much pumping out of the freshwater by the tube wells is quickly depleting the freshwater aquifer more than the rate of their recharging through rain and canal water seepage.

In certain areas, tube wells and turbines have reached those pockets and are pumping out the seawater, resulting in the fast deterioration of our fertile croplands. In fact, we are repeating the same mistake, that India committed two decades ago by heavily subsidizing the tube well installation and providing the farmers with electricity almost free of charge for these tube wells.

3. Climate Change Resulting in Glacier Melting

As noted above, the pushing of the Indian Plate against the Eurasian Plate resulted in the formation of the Himalayan range along with the creation of huge glaciers, which are the source of all the major rivers flowing into Pakistan. These rivers, in turn, are the lifelines of Pakistan’s economy. According to new research, these glaciers are melting as a result of climate change, which could result in heavy flooding in the foreseeable future and, later on, total drought. There is thus an urgent need to take climate change seriously and take adaptive and mitigation measures

4. Canal Water and Soil Fertility

The Plains of Punjab and Sindh have been irrigated for the last five decades by the water of the rivers, which originate from the Himalayan basin, through the elaborate network of canals laid during the 1960s. No doubt, this helped the farmers raise their productivity manifold as they adopted new fertilizer-seed technology that was heavily reliant upon water availability.

However, for 50 years, the same water has spread tons and tons of salt brought by them from the mountains onto the fields. While the water evaporated, the salt kept on accumulating on the surface, with the result that now the upper layers of our land have a very heavy amount of residual salt. It needs a revision of our tube well policy, the adoption of high-efficiency irrigation techniques, and R&D in the production of crops and vegetables that are salt-resistant varieties.

5. Need for Preserving the Geological Treasures

Pakistan has a very impressive palaeontological record, which can be noticed while travelling by road from Karachi to Peshawar. More than 3,000 dinosaur fossils have been collected from various parts of Pakistan, which is one of the few countries where evidence of early whales and dolphins, who lived in the Tethys Ocean, exists. Potohar is known to be one of the richest open geological museums in the world, where priceless treasures are hidden beneath the surface.

The discovery of the hominid fossils of Sivapithecus Indicus in the Potohar Plateau in 1979 was considered groundbreaking in helping the world reconsider Darwin’s track of the evolutionary path of modern man. In Baluchistan, a French team discovered the fossilized remains of Baluchitherium, the largest mammal that ever walked the earth. It is, therefore, of the utmost necessity that every effort be made to preserve these prehistoric treasures. However, it is shameful that we are not taking appropriate measures to safeguard these treasure troves.

6. Abundance of Mineral Wealth

Thanks to its geological transformation over millions of years, 110 types of Sedimentary Formations have been identified in various regions of Pakistan by the Geological Survey of Pakistan( GSP); many areas remain uninvestigated. Patterns of Sedimentary formation in Pakistan are unique; e.g., sedimentary deposits of Salts in the “Salt Range” of northern Punjab are holding miles of layers with estimated deposits of 220 million tons of edible salts. Similar are the huge metamorphic deposits of Onyx, marble, and Limestone in Baluchistan and FATA.

The world’s fifth-biggest coal deposit lies in the Thar Desert, with estimated deposits of 175 billion metric tons. Then there is a substantial variety of minerals and natural resources; including gold and copper deposits in Baluchistan. Precious stone deposits in Baluchistan, Swat, Kohistan, and adjacent Regions are among just a few geological wonders to be mentioned here. Although oil and gas resources were discovered in various parts of present-day Pakistan, notably Attock. In the last quarter of the 19th century, no serious efforts were made to do it on a massive scale.

7. Need to Exploit Geothermal Resources

Pakistan is extremely rich in Dry-Steam geothermal resources that are rare on earth and found in a few countries around the world. It is really unfortunate to note that this form of energy is not even recognized in the country's renewable energy policy. This situation is nothing but a hindrance for local or foreign investors to come forward for the development of geothermal energy in Pakistan

Additionally, Pakistan has hundreds of hot springs scattered all over the four main geological zones. These hot springs are gushing out low- to high-enthalpy brines. As such, a good capacity of hot brine is available to the country, but its utilization is very low. Therefore, most of the hot water is wasted. While the world is utilizing most of its available underground heated water, Pakistan is simply wasting it, equivalent to the wastage of oil.

8. Potential for Mountain Tourism

Finally, the collision of the Indian Plate with the Tibetan Plate resulted in the formation of the highest mountain ranges in the world, namely the Himalayas. Fortunately, Northern Pakistan is among the most heavily glaciated regions on Earth after the North and South Poles. Three different chains of mountains meet and separate in Pakistan. Rakaposhi, a beautiful mountain, is also said to be the steepest place on Earth. The world’s second-highest peak, K2, and 54 out of the 109 highest peaks in South Asia are situated in Pakistani territory. These mountains are one of the biggest attractions for foreign tourists.