Foreign Policy of USA: Major Issues

Introduction

Preserving the national interest is the paramount foreign policy goal of every country -big or small. While its details differ from country to country, national interest essentially revolves around four inter-dependent core aims with accompanying short-term and long-term objectives namely

1. National Security/Territorial Integrity: Having the sufficient capability to counter foreign aggression and internal subversion by maintaining well-equipped and well-trained armed forces backed by economic wherewithal, public support, and state resources.
2. Economic Wellbeing of People: Improving the quality of life of its citizens through rapid economic growth based on access to foreign resources and the market if needed
3. Preserving Internal Harmony/promoting its soft image: by promoting its own set of moral/cultural values outside
4. Ensuring Regional/Global Peace: to ensure the realisation of the above three. For a superpower like the USA, which is technical if not physical, a neighbour of every country, maintaining peace in every region is part of its national interest.

Aims of American Foreign Policy

While a nation-state has a foreign policy, a superpower, having global agenda, has a grand strategy. This long-term multi-generational grand strategy encompasses multiple foreign policies for different regions, using diplomatic as well as non-diplomatic means to achieve the overall objectives of the grand strategy.

Thus, the grand strategy of the USA, besides achieving the above-mentioned four strategic objectives of its national interest, has three over-riding aims namely

1. Maintaining Global Hegemony

During the Cold War period, the main aim of its grand strategy was to achieve global dominance by defeating its main rival, the USSR. After the end of the Cold War, the USA emerged as the only superpower; hence its grand strategy aimed to preserve this global hegemony. No doubt, the United States is still the most dominant global power thanks to its economic clout, technological sophistication, military might, territorial security, and dollar dominance. But, slowly and surely, its margin of superiority is shrinking due to internal weaknesses and changing global power equations.

While an economically emerging China has eroded the economic pre-eminence of the USA and is threatening its dollar dominance, one of the main pillars of American hegemony, a resurging Russia is challenging its military supremacy in every theatre of conflict. Consequently, the first main aim of the American grand strategy is to maintain this global dominance by containing the rise of China by any means possible-diplomatic as well as non-diplomatic

2. Pax Americana/Global World Order

Related to the above, the other main aim of the American grand strategy is to create a world order as per its image- a Pax Americana. Essentially, it means to ensure the promotion of a market economy (aka Capitalism), liberal democracy, and Western culture as the three default conditions of the global world order.

3. National Security/Territorial Integrity

While a direct land attack on the mainland USA is next to impossible, they are worried about international terrorism and nuclear missile attack by any hostile state or non-state actors on the USA or its allies. As such elimination of Global Terrorism including Cyber terrorism and nuclear proliferation along with missile technology is one of the prime goals of its foreign policy.

Related to the above is access to resources. The USA may be self-sufficient in all the resources needed for economic growth, but its allies are dependent on almost all the resources they need in this respect. Ensuring access to these resources and their safe transportation is thus its prime concern for which the USA through its policy of freedom of global maritime navigation by direct military operations if needed.

Similar is the case in respect of access to markets to sell its and its allies’ manufactured products to major and emerging markets and ensure that its multinational corporations are free to invest in profitable ventures abroad

American Strategies

To safeguard its national interest, the USA has a set of strategies by utilising all the diplomatic and other means at its disposal. Some of these measures include

1. Diplomatic Engagement: Being a superpower, the USA has the largest global network of embassies; its ambassadors enjoy a very privileged position in their respective countries of accreditation. Because of its clout, it can influence the policy formulation process as well as get extra concessions from the political elite and executive institutions using the carrot-and-stick approach
2. Alliance Building: co-opting countries sharing the same interests and values as strategic partners against its potential rivals (China, Russia, etc) by concluding partnership agreements in multiple fields
3. Threat/ Use of Force: Power projection by establishing military bases around the rivals’ territorial soft bellies as well as maintaining battle-ready warships stationed in the seas.
4. Resource Denial: Denying access to resources/ technology, markets, and sea lanes to potential rivals through force or coercion as well as imposing sanctions against those states/institutions deemed hostile to American interests/ sponsoring terrorism. It also includes preventing the spread of nuclear and missile technology among non-nuclear countries through the carrot-and-sticks approach,
5. Hostile Engagement: engaging them in regional conflicts directly or through proxies, assisting their enemies to challenge,
6. Wooing/Threatening the rivals’ friendly states through the offer of foreign aid and access to markets and utilising its clout in the global institutions. Threatening the rival’s friendly states: to back away from supporting them by denying concessional aid provided directly or through global institutions, fomenting troubles in their sensitive areas, backwaters, and soft bellies by carrying out covert terrorist operations
7. Regime Changes/Support: Changing anti-USA regimes through every means possible but propping up its compliant regimes how oppressive they may be etc

Areas of Interest for American Grand Strategy/Foreign Policies

As stated above, the USA has a grand strategy encompassing multiple foreign policies tailored to its needs in any specific region of the world. Thus its foreign policy for Latin America may have different sets of strategies than those needed in the Middle East. To understand the nature of relations between the USA and any region or country, we must keep in mind the following three cardinal principles of international relations

1. The permanence of Interests: Firstly, there are no permanent friends or permanent enemies in international relations, only permeant interests (Lord Palmerston). Consequently, the bilateral relations between any two countries keep on changing with the changes in objective realities and the corresponding changes in the perceptions of the respective policymakers.
2. The flexibility of Priorities: Secondly, superpowers have global agenda; hence their relations with a country will depend upon their own sets of priorities for the realisation of their respective national interests, changing with the changing geopolitical environment and the requirements of the USA’s foreign policy in that part of the world.
3. Relativity of Importance: Thirdly, the relevance and usefulness of any country for a superpower of the day are directly proportionate to its usefulness for the achievement of permanent interests of the superpowers; sometimes geo-strategically located small countries become more important than large countries not enjoying that privilege.

Keeping in view the global scale of its foreign policy aims, we can prioritise the regions for their respective importance to the USA.

Latin America

From the security point of view, Latin America is USA’s backwater or soft belly like central and Eastern Europe are for Russia. As such USA will never tolerate anyone destabilising it or establishing their foothold which could pose a threat to the USA. It is also its hinterland for the supply of human and mineral resources and a lucrative market for its products and services. Its vast potential is exploited by American MNCs for investment. Finally, it is a source of illegal drugs coming into the USA. Accordingly, the main strategy of the USA in Latin America is to

1. Protect all US-friendly regimes in all the countries of the region by providing them with all the military and diplomatic support
2. Topple any regime considered not friendly towards the USA or considered dangerously close to the Chinese and Russians
3. engaging their business elite through joint ventures
4. carry out overt and covert anti-narcotics operations in these countries with and without the cooperation of the concerned governments

Europe

Once a colony of one of the European countries namely Great Britain whom it replaced as a global hegemon after the 2nd World War, the USA, and Europe have been the closest allies due to shared values and interests. The US-Europe alliance through the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the formation of the European Union have been the bedrock of American strategy for global peace and security. It has stood the test of time for their multidimensional interdependence. Europe facing multiple internal and external challenges is not able to ditch the USA. America, in turn, is too much dependent on Europe to achieve its following foreign policy objective

1. Europe should not only help the USA in restraining Russia from expanding its influence in Europe, but it should be the vanguard of the foreign policy objective of the USA to cut Russia to size and then make it a partner for the containment of China
2. Europe should not only refrain from becoming a Chines lake in terms of trade, investment, and technology transfer but should be its steadfast partner in the containment of China by joining it in the various pacts and alliances the USA is forging around China.
3. Europe should assist the USA in strengthening the rules-based international system, a euphemism to signify a world order dominated by the USA and its allies.
4. Europe should work together to confront global security challenges like terrorism, violent extremism, nuclear weapons proliferation, and transnational crime.
5. Europe must remain its biggest trade and investment partner and a conduit for technology transfer

South Asia

South Asia has special significance for the USA for the following reasons

1. Geostrategic Relevance: Geo-strategically, South Asia is the most important region for the USA because of its proximity to Central Asia, the soft belly of its rival Russia, and to Tibet, the soft belly of its other rival, China. It is bordering the Indian Ocean from where 80% of ships carrying goods to and from its Allies pass, which makes it even more significant. Similarly, it is the outer border of the Middle East where the USA and its allies are fighting for resources, markets, and hegemony.
2. Geopolitical Significance: Geopolitically, South Asia is again a very important region for the USA as the two nuclear powers of the day, India and Pakistan, are at daggers drawn with each other. Any miscalculation and the world can easily plunge into a 3rd World War with the possible use of nuclear arms. Additionally, it has India which could be a perfect counterpoise to China. Last but not least, it is the hotbed of international terrorism-presently the biggest worry of the USA. And if any terrorist group gets hold of the nuclear arm, it will end up being used against its Allies or maybe against the USA forces stationed on various bases
3. Geo-economic Importance: Geoeconomically, it is one of the most lucrative regions with a huge market and vast reservoir of educated and skilled manpower. Witnessing impressive growth rates, there is an increasing and prosperous middle-class yearning for Western goods and services. Its developmental needs attract a lot of FDI every year

Based on the above perceptions of the USA and the significance of South Asia for safeguarding its national interest, USÁ has the following aims of its foreign policy in respect of South Asia

1. Ensuring peace between India and Pakistan to avoid nuclear war between them
2. Capturing the market for its manufactured goods and services
3. Access to its human capital and material resources for itself and its Allies
4. Maritime security for the safe passage of ships passing through the Indian Ocean
5. Elimination of terrorism in the region

Accordingly, the USA has adopted the following policies in dealing with South Asia

1. Designation of India as the regional hegemon to control the peace and security in the region. Defence and Strategic Cooperation agreement with India. Preparing India as a counterpoise to China
2. Ensuring that Pakistan doesn’t become a total satellite state of China by engaging Pakistan’s political elite through development aid and dialogue. Keeping close liaison with Pakistan’s security establishment through its defence establishment
3. Keeping low-level terrorism/insurgency in Pakistan through India and Afghanistan with twin objectives-pressure on Pakistan to stop its support to Taliban and minimising any misadventure by Pakistan against India

Although the multi-dimensional cooperation between India and US is not new and started during the 1980s due to better credentials of India as compared to Pakistan, the new geopolitical and geostrategic developments have brought them closer. It is the new geopolitical realignments in which Pakistan is siding with the Chinese-Russian Nexus while USA and India are coming closer to counter emerging China and resurging Russia.

South-East Asia

The crucial importance of Southeast Asia for the achievement of the geostrategic and geo-economic interests of the USA cannot be overemphasised-hence the most celebrated Pivot to Asia which eclipsed the importance of several traditional U.S. trading partners. With renewed Cold War, U.S. global influence and credibility depend a lot on America’s ability to honour its security commitments made in the past and to keep the sea lanes open for global trade. Some of the reasons for its importance to the USA are

Besides the above, Southeast Asia is extremely important for achieving the prime objective of containing China which incidentally has not very friendly relations with its immediate neighbours due to its territorial claims. It has given the USA a godsend opportunity to implement its containment policy by creating anti-China alliances as well as supporting those who can stand up to China individually and collectively.

The Middle East

Despite all the rhetoric about the U.S. “pivot” to the Pacific, the Middle East remains vital to the United States for multiple geostrategic and geo-economic reasons. Besides being a repository of half of the world’s proven oil reserves, the Middle East is also the locus of vital shipping lanes accounting for more than 60% of oil cargo and almost 40% of other merchandise. Keeping them open is vital for the economy and the security of the USA and its allies.

It also is the springboard of global terrorism which incidentally was promoted by the USA in the 1960s and the 1970s as a foreign policy tool to destabilise the USSR and its client states in the region. This Islamic radicalisation has now morphed into militant Islam and its violent offshoot -Islamic terrorism. Any counter-terrorism strategy, therefore, must start in the Middle East.

To safeguard its above-mentioned vital interests in the region, the USA has a hybrid strategy to implement its Middle East policy ranging from

1. Protecting and promoting Israel, its local policeman guarding the vital interests of the USA and the West in the region. It has the following objectives in this respect
2. No one, particularly Iran, should ever think of attaining nuclear parity with the Israeli clandestine nuclear capability.
3. No military in the region should be powerful enough to pose any conventional military threat to challenge Israel,
4. There should not ever be any anti-Israel alliance in the Middle East like the one formed in 1967.
5. Force Syria to conclude a separate peace treaty with Israel, ceding parts of the Golan Heights annexed by Israel in the 1967 war, forever and withdraw its support to all anti-Israel militant groups backed by Iran
6. Restricting the increasing Chinese access to vast resources of the region and her accompanying political clout among the regional countries
7. Establishing military bases at strategic locations throughout the Middle East while trying to deny this facility to its arch-rivals China and Russia.
8. Protecting its puppets like Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states while destabilising those who do not toe its line and changing their regimes if needed. However, its most effective strategic tool is the time-tested divide and rule.
9. the divide and conquer strategy while exploiting the Sunni-Shiite divide to protect Gulf oil and gas supplies while maintaining a Gulf Arab state’s dominance over oil markets.

Central Asia

Central Asia is another area of crucial importance to the United States for several reasons

1. Geostrategic: Due to its proximity to major actors like Russia, China, Iran, Pakistan, and India, it is an important theatre for the USA. Russia and China have launched a coordinated campaign to oust the U.S. strategic presence in Central Asia. Central Asian states, fearing democratic reforms, are also with China accusing the United States of organizing “colour revolutions” to oust those regimes from power
2. Geoeconomic: There is a great scramble for oil and gas resources, estimated to be more than 200 billion barrels of oil, in the region
3. Geo-political: Another key interest of U.S. policy is the promotion of democratic reforms and open societies throughout the region.

China

If Russia is an irritant, China is a headache for the USA. Although it is the looming trade war between the two countries that are attracting the most attention all over the world, two other issues are the real stumbling blocks to harmonious relations between these two countries. One is the access to and utilisation of advanced American technologies by the Chinese and the second is its claims on the South China Sea.

1. Technology: The US and Chinese economies are too closely intertwined to afford a long-drawn trade war. However, technology rivalry is a different ball game. Despite making tremendous strides in technological development and diffusion, China is at least 20 years behind the USA in sophisticated technology. It is therefore American prime interest to restrict China’s access to and development of those advanced technologies which it thinks could bolster China’s global technological ranking
2. South China Sea: Secondly, the most dangerous dimension of the Sino-US ‘contest’ is the prospect of a US challenge to China’s claims in the South China Sea and, even more seriously, the possibility that Washington may reopen the ‘One China Policy. As President Xi recently reiterated, China will use all its capabilities to defend its ‘territorial integrity. US miscalculation could lead to conflict.

Russia

Despite their economic disparity, Russia is keeping pace with the US in the modernisation of nuclear weapons, missile and anti-missile systems, and conventional armaments. In Europe, there is now a military stand-off between a weakened NATO and a confident Russia. The US and Russia are also competitively engaged in several other countries and regions: Ukraine, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan, and Central and Northeast Asia. Furthermore, Russia has formed a strategic partnership with China that spans Eurasia.

(From my book “International Relations: Basic Concepts & Global Issues”, available at Amazon https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08QZSRWT1)