Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire
Introduction
From the 1526 War of Panipat until its dissolution in 1857, the Mughal Empire was one of the largest empires in the world. Covering more than a million square kilometers, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India. Its population numbered more than 100 million, consisting of 100 distinct nationalities.
Although created and sustained by military warfare, the Mughal Empire lasted for such a long time due to its efficient, centralised bureaucratic structure, fair treatment to all, and most importantly, convenient alliance-building with diverse ruling elites to produce an efficient, centralised, standardised rule. However, no one could guess that behind the formidable façade of an empire, lay a divided house that would crumble like a house of cards within a few decades.
Causes of the decline
There is no doubt that the British ascendency played a crucial role in the earlier-than-expected breakup of the Mughal Empire. However, it would be too much to give it full credit; there were so many structural and managerial causes of its decline that it is impossible to point out one or two reasons for an event as complex and far-reaching as the dissolution of an empire. People are still arguing about the causes of the fall of the Roman Empire. They are not going to agree quickly on why the Mughal Empire collapsed. And ironically, some even argue why it took so long for the Empire to break! Here are a few theories.
1. Conventional Wisdom Theory
Most scholars hold Aurangzeb responsible for the ultimate decline and collapse of the Mughal Empire. To them, it was his 20-year-long campaign to crush the Deccan states that led to the depletion of resources, and his long absence from the headquarters resulted in weakening the writ of the state. He was, they maintain, trying to do too much in too short a time and badly mishandling it. However, it is not true, as the Mughal Empire was already falling apart at the seams. None could have done anything to stop this decline. History will always remember Aurangzeb for his last-ditch efforts to preserve Muslim rule in India.
2. Succession Wars
There was no law of succession among the Muslim rulers of the subcontinent. During the period of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal era, the transfer of power was not peaceful, except for a few. During the last years of Shah Jehan, a war of succession broke out among his sons, and its consequences were disastrous for the complexion of the entire society. Likewise, after the death of Aurangzeb, the war was again fought among his kin, which divided the Muslim elite. These wars of succession were also responsible for the decline of the Mughal and Muslim Empires.
3. Declining Military Power
The Mughal Empire, like any other power in history, was created by power and must keep on improving its military muscle to sustain itself. The Mughal Empire forgot this fundamental law of history. The military, with which the earlier strong rulers carried on the conquest and extended the empire, had now become demoralized and inefficient. There was a lack of discipline, cohesion, patriotism, and ignorance in modern military warfare in the army. The military was also divided on a religious, linguistic, and ethnic basis. Thus, in the final showdown, the British proved to be formidable foes, largely due to their superior weapons, training, and strategy, which play a decisive role in any military contest. The very Enfield rifle that the rebels had refused to operate became their nemesis for its accuracy.
4. It was an Agricultural Empire
Although India used to produce 25% of the world’s GDP in the 1600s, more than 80% of her income was produced by the agricultural sector. Her growing population ensured that there was enough supply of labour force, obviating the necessity to use machines in agricultural operations or their
value addition. Consequently, her industrialization process was painstakingly slow, keeping her status as an agricultural empire that did not produce enough surpluses to be ploughed into R&D and technological advancements. An agricultural empire is inherently weak when pitted against an industrial one, which has sufficient resources and needs for technology.
5. Leadership Capacity Deficit
At the end of the day, it is the capability of the leadership in any country that decides its fate. One of the reasons for the longevity of the Roman Empire was its Cursus Honorum- the great honour attached to each post. Consequently, only the best of the best would proceed through this course of honour. Unfortunately, the latter Mughals failed to meet the highest standards of leadership expected from them. Administrative chaos resulted in an economic downfall. The revenue taxes were enhanced, and there was no uniformity in the tax policy during the later Mughal emperors. Economic instability thus undermined the stability of the empire.
The king and sultans like Altutmash. Balban, and Alauddin Khilji. Muhammad Tughluq, Sikandar Lodhi, Babar, Akbar, and Aurangzeb, were competent, hardworking, and intelligent people, who were well aware, of the art of smooth sailing in government. The remaining rulers were neither competent nor of the highest character. The courtiers and the nobles of the Mughal rulers of the 17th and 18th centuries were not men of character and were divided on an ethnic and linguistic basis.
6. Rise of Marhattas
The rise of the Marhattas has resulted in a period of anarchy and chaos. Aurangzeb’s death was a signal for the Marathas to enhance their authority over the government, which resulted in administrative disorder. There was great resentment among the Muslim masses against the Marhattas in particular, but the emperors were too weak to meet the challenge.
7. Ignorance Towards Sea Power
The Muslim rulers, particularly the Mughals, neglected the importance of sea power. They lacked the vision and sagacity to understand the challenges posed by the European sea power. The Mughal Empire’s lack of interest in becoming a sea power resulted in missed opportunities to control maritime trade, counter European colonial expansion, and secure its coastline. This contributed to its economic decline, reduced geopolitical influence, and overall weakening as it failed to adapt to the changing dynamics of the early modern period.
8. Foreign Invasions
The attacks of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah were a fatal blow to the Mughal authority and resulted in the rise of regional powers and the deterioration of the central authority. Deccan, Orissa, Oudh, Bengal, Bihar, etc., all declared their independence. Unfortunately, the Muslim rulers neglected the importance of educational institutions. When Europe was being illuminated by the Renaissance movement, establishing universities, hospitals and welfare institutions, our rulers were indulged in making gardens, palaces and palace intrigues
9. Imperial Overreach Theory
Paul Kennedy, in his book about the reasons for the fall of the great powers, maintains that the great powers start declining when they overstretch themselves. It fits perfectly in this case; the Mughal Empire had stretched itself too much but did not have enough resources to cover the costs of this imperial burden. It had 100 distinct nationalities and nations under its fold, all aspiring for independent status on a different basis. Once the Deccan states gave Aurangzeb a tough time, it was an unstoppable process. State after state started asserting their independence. Deccan, Orissa, Oudh, Bengal, Bihar, etc., all declared their independence.
10. Erosion of Instrumental Legitimacy
The Mughal Empire just lost its instrumental legitimacy, or raison d’être i.e., the reason for being. It became irrelevant to the common citizen because of its failure to help them maintain a decent standard of living. It was this dysfunctionality of the system that failed the Mughal Empire. It stifled the incentive to work and save because the state was extracting too many resources for maintaining the Mughal Darbar, its costly wars, and mega projects. It discouraged innovation because there was no reward for individuals to excel. Consequently, the economic system failed to create enough surplus to be ploughed into running the empire.
Conclusion
Muslims came to India as conquerors and established their rule in the Subcontinent. This period stretched for almost 1,000 years. Muslims had always been in the minority, but they maintained their capacity to rule this vast land. By mixing the dogmas, culture, ideas, and ethnicity, there emerged a culture, that was homogenous and embraced by all the communities.
Aurang Zeb was the last Mughal emperor and the last effective Muslim ruler of India; When he died, chaos interrupted his empire, and a war of succession among his descendants proved disastrous to Mughal glory. The invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali, during the reign of Muhammad Shah, proved fatal for the crumbling Mughal Empire.
Bahadur Shah, the last Mughal Emperor, was merely a titular head, a pensioner of the East India Company. The 1857 War of Independence resulted in the formal end of the Muslim Empire, and the East India Company took control of the subcontinent.
