3Cs of International Relations in the Global Community
Introduction
The “3Cs” of international relations are acronyms used by scholars and practitioners in global politics to encapsulate different approaches to studying and understanding international interactions. These frameworks not only aid in the ease of understanding and memorization but also serve as valuable policy statements.
Each interpretation of the 3Cs offers a distinct focus, providing a comprehensive lens to analyse the complexities of international relations, from geopolitical tensions and economic rivalries to collaborative efforts in peacebuilding and development. The answer to which interpretation to use depends on the study’s perspective and purpose, highlighting the versatility and depth these frameworks offer in global politics.
A. Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation
This is the most common understanding, highlighting the three fundamental dynamics that play out between states and other actors in the global community.
1. Conflict
Conflict refers to open hostility or disagreements between states or other international actors that can lead to violence or war. For example, the Ongoing Conflict in Ukraine is a stark example of geopolitical tensions escalating into military confrontation. The conflict began in 2014 when Russia annexed Crimea, leading to widespread international condemnation and sanctions. Tensions escalated dramatically in 2022 when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, citing security concerns and historical claims.
This conflict has significant implications for international security, prompting NATO to bolster its eastern flank and increase military aid to Ukraine from Western nations. The war has disrupted global supply chains, especially for energy and food, given Ukraine’s and Russia’s roles as major exporters. This has led to rising prices and economic instability worldwide. The conflict has caused severe humanitarian crises, with millions of Ukrainians displaced and numerous reports of human rights abuses.
2. Competition
Competition involves striving for an advantage over others in areas like resources, trade, or power. The economic rivalry between the United States and China is one of the most prominent examples of international competition. The US and China have been engaged in a trade war, characterized by reciprocal tariffs and trade barriers. The US imposed tariffs on Chinese goods worth billions of dollars, citing unfair trade practices, which led to China retaliating with its own tariffs.
The competition extends to technological supremacy. Both nations are heavily investing in technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and quantum computing. For instance, the US has placed restrictions on Chinese tech companies like Huawei, aiming to curb China’s influence in global 5G networks. Both countries are also vying for influence in emerging markets. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) seeks to expand its economic and strategic reach through infrastructure investments in Asia, Africa, and Europe, while the US promotes alternative development models and partnerships.
3. Cooperation
Cooperation is the process of working together to achieve shared goals or address common challenges. Its best example is the Paris Agreement on Climate Change which exemplifies global cooperation on climate change. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, involves almost every country in the world committing to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
Countries have pledged nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and are sharing technologies and strategies to achieve these goals. For instance, developed countries have agreed to provide financial support to developing nations for climate adaptation and mitigation efforts. Despite their economic and political differences, countries like the US and China have cooperated on climate initiatives. For example, both nations have engaged in bilateral discussions and joint statements to enhance climate actions, such as phasing down the use of HFCs.
Summary
The dynamics of Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation are fundamental to understanding international relations. By examining these interactions, we can better comprehend the complexities of global affairs and the strategies that nations employ to navigate them. These dynamics are not mutually exclusive and often influence one another, shaping the global landscape in multifaceted ways.
These three dynamics often occur simultaneously and are interconnected. For instance, while the US and China are in a state of economic competition, with conflicts over trade and technology, they have also found areas for cooperation, such as climate change and public health. During the COVID-19 pandemic, despite the blame game and initial lack of transparency, the two countries shared research and resources to combat the virus.
B. Coherence, Coordination, and Complementarity
This framework is used in contexts like peacebuilding and development, emphasising the importance of different actors working together effectively.
1. Coherence
Coherence involves having a clear and shared understanding of the situation and desired outcomes. It ensures that all stakeholders — governments, NGOs, international organizations, and local communities — are aligned in their goals and strategies. The success of the peace process in Colombia underscores the importance of coherence. After decades of conflict between the Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), a peace agreement was reached in 2016. Coherence was achieved through:
The peace negotiations involved not only the government and FARC but also civil society groups, victims’ associations, and international mediators. This inclusive approach ensured that all perspectives were considered and aligned towards a common goal of peace and reconciliation. The peace agreement focused on comprehensive rural reform, political participation, and justice for victims, which were key areas agreed upon by all parties. This shared vision provided a clear roadmap for the post-conflict transition.
2. Coordination
Coordination refers to planning and implementing activities in a unified way to avoid overlap or duplication. Effective coordination ensures that resources are used efficiently and that efforts are complementary rather than redundant. The response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake highlighted the critical need for effective coordination among humanitarian agencies.
The initial humanitarian response was chaotic, with numerous organizations arriving in Haiti with limited communication and coordination. This led to overlapping efforts, gaps in aid distribution, and logistical challenges. To address these issues, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) established coordination clusters for different sectors, such as health, shelter, and food security. These clusters facilitated information sharing, resource allocation, and joint planning among the various NGOs, UN agencies, and government bodies involved in the relief efforts.
3. Complementarity
Complementarity means utilizing the unique strengths and resources of different actors to maximize impact. By leveraging the specialized expertise and resources of various organizations, development projects can achieve more effective and sustainable outcomes.
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria is an exemplary model of complementarity in international development. The Global Fund brings together governments, private sector partners, technical agencies, and civil society organizations. Each partner contributes unique resources and expertise — governments provide policy support and funding, private sector partners offer technological innovations, and NGOs bring on-the-ground implementation experience.
By pooling these diverse resources, the Global Fund has been able to finance and support large-scale health interventions that have saved millions of lives. For example, collaboration with pharmaceutical companies has led to the development and distribution of affordable and effective antiretroviral drugs for HIV/AIDS treatment.
Summary
In peacebuilding and development, Coherence, Coordination, and Complementarity principles are essential for achieving sustainable and impactful outcomes. Coherence ensures that all stakeholders are aligned in their goals and strategies, coordination avoids duplication of efforts and optimizes resource use, and complementarity leverages the unique strengths of different actors to maximize impact. By focusing on these elements, international efforts can be more effective in addressing complex challenges and achieving long-term positive change.
C. Compete, Collaborate, Confront
This framework has been used recently to describe the US approach to its relationship with China. It acknowledges the complex nature of this relationship, characterized by elements of competition (e.g., economic rivalry), collaboration (e.g., on climate change), and potential confrontation (e.g., geopolitical disputes).
1. Compete
The economic competition between the US and China is a defining feature of their relationship. Both nations strive for technological and economic supremacy, which has led to significant trade tensions. The US-China trade war, initiated during the Trump administration, saw both countries imposing tariffs on hundreds of billions of dollars’ worth of each other’s goods. This trade conflict aimed to address issues like the trade deficit, intellectual property theft, and forced technology transfer.
The race to lead in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and 5G telecommunications highlights this competition. For example, Huawei, a Chinese tech giant, has faced numerous restrictions and bans in the US due to concerns over national security and its ties to the Chinese government. In response, China has been investing heavily in its own tech sector to reduce dependence on foreign technology.
2. Collaborate
Despite their economic rivalry, the US and China recognize the need for collaboration on global issues such as climate change. Both nations are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and their cooperation is crucial for global climate efforts. Both countries have committed to the Paris Agreement, working towards reducing their carbon emissions. In 2021, the US Special Presidential Envoy for Climate, John Kerry, and his Chinese counterpart, Xie Zhenhua, issued a joint statement committing to cooperate on enhancing climate actions. This collaboration includes initiatives on clean energy development and carbon reduction strategies.
The US and China have engaged in various bilateral agreements focused on environmental protection and sustainability. For instance, they have agreed to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), potent greenhouse gases used in refrigeration and air conditioning, under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol.
3. Confront
The potential for confrontation between the US and China is most evident in their geopolitical disputes, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. The South China Sea is a flashpoint for US-China tensions. China’s expansive territorial claims and militarization of artificial islands have been met with US freedom of navigation operations. The US conducts regular naval patrols in the region to challenge China’s claims and assert international law, leading to frequent standoffs.
Taiwan is another significant area of potential confrontation. The US maintains unofficial relations with Taiwan and provides it with defensive arms, much to China’s displeasure. China views Taiwan as a breakaway province and has not ruled out the use of force to achieve reunification. US support for Taiwan’s self-defence capabilities, such as the sale of advanced military equipment, exacerbates tensions.
The US has also confronted China over human rights abuses, particularly regarding the treatment of Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang and the suppression of political freedoms in Hong Kong. The US has imposed sanctions on Chinese officials and companies linked to these abuses, which China views as interference in its internal affairs.
Summary
The US-China relationship is a complex interplay of competition, collaboration, and confrontation. Understanding this multifaceted dynamic is essential for policymakers and analysts as they navigate the strategic landscape. By recognizing where interests align and diverge, the US and China can manage their interactions more effectively, addressing global challenges while mitigating the risks of conflict.
D. Context, Capacity, and Coalitions
Additionally, in the context of inclusive development, the 3C’s are defined as context, capacity, and coalitions, emphasising the importance of political, social, and economic factors in driving inclusive development
1. Context
Context involves understanding the political, social, and economic factors that influence development. Inclusive development strategies must be tailored to the specific context of a region to ensure relevance and effectiveness. Efforts to promote economic development in sub-Saharan Africa highlight the importance of context-sensitive approaches.
In many sub-Saharan African countries, local governance structures vary significantly. For example, in Nigeria, development initiatives must navigate a complex federal system with significant power vested in state governments. Understanding these structures is crucial for effectively implementing development projects.
Cultural practices and social norms play a significant role in shaping development outcomes. For instance, gender norms can impact women’s participation in the workforce. In countries like Ethiopia, development programs that promote women’s economic empowerment must consider and address these cultural barriers to be successful.
The economic conditions of a region, such as the level of infrastructure development and access to markets, significantly influence development strategies. In Kenya, the M-Pesa mobile banking system has been a game-changer for financial inclusion, leveraging the widespread use of mobile phones to provide banking services in areas with limited traditional banking infrastructure.
2. Capacity
Capacity refers to the ability of individuals, organizations, and governments to implement development initiatives. Building local capacity is crucial for sustainable development. Capacity-building programs in Rwanda demonstrate the importance of enhancing local skills and capabilities.
In Rwanda, initiatives like the Rwanda Governance Board’s capacity-building programs have focused on enhancing the skills of local government officials and community leaders. These programs provide training in areas such as project management, financial planning, and governance, enabling local leaders to effectively manage development projects.
Programmes like Rwanda’s Community-Based Health Insurance (CBHI) scheme haveempowered local communities to manage and sustain health services. By building the capacity of local health workers and administrators, the CBHI scheme has improved access to healthcare and enhanced health outcomes across the country.
Capacity-building efforts also include strengthening local institutions to ensure they can effectively implement and sustain development initiatives. The Rwanda Education Board, for instance, has worked to improve the quality of education by enhancing teacher training programs and curriculum development.
3. Coalitions
Coalitions involve forming partnerships and alliances to drive inclusive development. Successful development initiatives often require collaboration among various stakeholders. The success of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) highlights the importance of coalitions.
The GPEI brought together national governments, international organizations, NGOs, and private sector partners. Key partners included the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Each partner contributed unique resources and expertise to the initiative.
The coalition leveraged financial resources, technical expertise, and on-the-ground networks to implement polio vaccination campaigns worldwide. For instance, Rotary International mobilized volunteers and raised funds, while WHO provided technical guidance and CDC offered epidemiological support.
The collaborative efforts of the coalition have been instrumental in reducing polio cases by over 99% since the GPEI’s launch in 1988. The initiative’s success demonstrates how coalitions can pool resources and expertise to achieve common goals and drive significant progress in global health.
Summary
In the context of inclusive development, understanding the local context, building capacity, and forming coalitions are critical components for driving progress and ensuring that development efforts are equitable and sustainable. These elements are essential for tailoring development strategies to specific regional needs, empowering local communities, and leveraging the strengths of various stakeholders to achieve shared goals.
Conclusion
The 3Cs frameworks — Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation; Coherence, Coordination, and Complementarity; and Context, Capacity, and Coalitions — provide valuable lenses for analyzing international relations. By examining these dynamics and their interplay, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of global interactions and develop strategies to address the challenges and opportunities in the international arena.
From the book “International Relations: Basic Concepts, Global Issues”, published by Amazon and available at
